In the Name of Allah, The Most Compassionate, The Most Merciful.
THE MAGNIFICENT
EXHIBITION
ISLAM
In the Name of Allah, The Most Compassionate, The Most Merciful.
"That (this) is indeed an honourable recitation (the Noble Quran),
In a Book well-guarded.
Which none can touch but the purified."
Surah al-Waaqi'ah (The Event) 56: 77-79.
Front cover: a magnificent 16th century Quran from the Iraq region written on beige
coloured paper in niyham script. The left hand page shows the end of Surah al-lsraa (The
Journey by Night, 17) with the start of Surah al-Kahf (The Cave, 18) opposite.
Back cover: 18th century Quran from the Saharan region of Africa written in sahniwi
script on thick paper. The start of Surah TaaHaa (20) is shown on the left hand page.
End papers: the whole of Surah al-Fatihah (The Opening, I ) in two parts from a Quranic
manuscript written in ravhatti Arabic script, Iraq, 16th century.
Page i: Arabic calligraphy written in tindutli script reading, "In the Name of Allah, The
Most Compassionate, Hie Most Mercitul ".
Page 2: magnificent 1 6th century Qur anic manuscript copy from the Middle East showing
Surah ash-Sharh ('The Opening Forth, 94) and Surah at-Teen (The Fig, 95).
Page 5: beautifully illustrated Quranic calligraphy from Surah al-Waaqi'ah (The Event,
56) verses 77-79 penned in a circular style using traditional thiduih script.
Page 7 (opposite): decorative text page containing the first portion of Surah al-Baqarah
(The Heifer, 2) from a complete Quran dating back to the 17th century copied in the
Indian subcontinent using miskh script within a cloud motif.
Pages 8 & 9: decorative carpet pages from volume one ot Sultan Bayhar's seven volume
Quran, dated 1305-06 (held at the British Library, London). Ihe Quranic text written in
white kufic script is from Surah al-Waaqi'ah (The Event, 56) verses 77-80. "That (this) is
indeed an honour able recitation (the Noble Qui an), hi a Book well guarded (with
Allah in the heaven, i.e. Ai-Lauh AI-Mahfuz), Which (that Book with Allah) none can
touch but the purified (i.e. the angels). A Revelation (this Qur'an) from the Lord of
the Alamin (mankind, jinn and all that exists)."
Page 10: the start of Surah al-lsraa (Hie Journey by Night, 17) from a Qur'an dated I 269
AH (1891 CE) written in Afghanistan. The text is elegantly written in a traditional naskh
script within a cloud motif surrounded by extensively decorated geometric floral design
work. The calligraphers name is inscribed on the back page as Ghulam Mahuidin.
Page I 1 (second title page): highly illuminated arabesque Surah al-Baqarah chapter header,
from an 18th century North African Qur'an.
Pages 12 & 13: elegant mukaqqaa calligraphy of Surah al-Fatihah (The Opening, ] ).
Page 14: visually intense Surah al-Falaq (The Daybreak, 1 13) from a 1 7th century Qajar
Qur'an written in Persia. Exquisitely decorated throughout using precious gold and other
colours written in naskh script on handmade polished paper.
Pages 18 if 21: elaborately decorated pages with Surah an-Naas (Mankind, 1 14) and
Surahs al-lkhlaas ( Ihe Purity, 1 12) and al-Falaq (The Daybreak, 1 13) from a 16th century
Qur'an.
Page 22: close-up view of Surah al-Falaq (The Daybreak, 113) from a large Mamluk
Qur'an leal written in muluiijqaq script, Egypt, 14th century.
Page 24 & 25: close up view of verse 56 from Surah al-Ah/ab (The Confederates, 33)
taken from a 400 year old Qur'an copied in Iraq. The text is written in a refined ravhani
script using black ink and set within a multi-coloured lined border. Large gold coloured
roundels act as verse separators.
Page 26: detail ot a gold and blue coloured marginal medallion from a I 2th century Abbasid
Qur'an. Hie Arabic word for the number ten (ashara) written in eastern kufic script within
concentric circles indicates the end of a 10th verse.
Page 27 (third title page): exceptional hand painted late 19th century Quranic calligraphy
in thuhtth scriptwith the words ofthe sixth verse from Surah al-Insaan (Man, 76); "Aspring
where from the slaves of Allah will drink, causing it to gush forth abundantly".
Page 28: early 20th century Qur'an scroll beautifully hand painted in thuhith script from
the Middle East, most likely from Lebanon or Syria. The words are from part of verse 2 1 of
Surah Yusuf ( Joseph, 12); "And Allah has full power and control over His Affairs, but
most of men know not,"
Page 30: 19th century page from a complete Qur'an beautifully hand written in traditional
naskh style Arabic script showing the first few verses of Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2).
Originating horn the Ottoman Empire, it is brilliantly decorated with geometric patterns
throughout using precious gold and a variety of other colours. It is written on polished
paper and bound in a leather hardcover with gold insets.
Page 32: beautifully illuminated 1 6th century Qur'an from Persia or Iraq. The start of Surah
al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) is written in elegant ravhani script on thin polished paper.
Page 34: detailed view ofthe word Allah' written in bihari Arabic script using gold ink with
a black outline from a I 5th century Qur'an copied in India,
Pages 36 & 37: extensive floral design work from an early 20th century Qur an scroll
originating in the Middle East beautifully penned in thuhttli script. The calligraphy has
been taken from verse 2 of Surah as-Safl (The Ranks, 61); "O yon who believe! Why do
you say that which you do not do?" 'Ihe dimensions ofthe scroll are 100 cm long by 30
cm wide.
Pages 38 & 39: a series of images showing magnificently illuminated Arabic calligraphy
written on a long scroll ot thick paper, line dimensions of this scroll dated to 1826 CE are
400 cm long by 20 cm wide. The manuscript begins with the words 'In the Name of Allah.
The Most Compassionate, The Most Merciful' written in thuluth script, in black ink, fol-
lowed by verse 255 known as Aval id Kursi from Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2), written
in thick thiduth script in black ink within a cloud motif surrounded by a gold and red floral
border.
Page 40: Surah al-Fatihah ( Ihe Opening, 1 ) from a 17th century Qijar Qur an written
in Persia. Richly decorated throughout using precious gold and other colours written in
naskh script on handmade polished paper.
Page 42: the first few verses of Surah al-Baqarah ( Ihe Heifer, 2) from a 17th century
Persian Qur'an.
Page 44: detail of vowel markings from an early 20th century Qur'an scroll.
Notes and abbreviations:
Bibliographic references: are indicated by a number written in superscript and cited in
the reference section starting on page 564.
Quranic references: the name ol the surah (chapter) in Arabic is followed by the English
translation, the surah number and the number ofthe ayah (verse).
. : Arabic supplication 'may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him' (transliteration
- salla Allahu alayhi wa sallam). It is a religious recommendation for Muslims to repeat
this phrase whenever the name of Prophet Muhammad ( ) is mentioned or written.
Although we have also endeavoured to write a salutation whenever a companion ofthe
Prophet Muhammad ( '"• ) is mentioned, it has not always been possible in every case, so
May Allah be well pleased with them all'.
CE: The Common Era, sometimes known as the Current Era, begins with the year 1 on
the Gregorian calendar. All ofthe dates throughout this book are given as Common Era
dates unless stated otherwise.
AH: After Hijrah, Islamic dates are reckoned from the Ilijrah (the migration or Prophet
Muhammad ; ' from Makkah to Madinah, in the year 622 CE).
This book was researched, designed and published by Exhibition Islam.
Copyright ©2010 Exhibition Islam.
ISRN978-0-955523X-3-0
All rights reserved. No part ot this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior
permission of tho copyright owner.
THE
MAGNIFICENT
E X H I B I T I O N
ISLAM
www.exhibitionislam.com
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
The Need for Messages from Allah ■
The previous Books of Allah
The 'People of the Book'
The nature of the previous books
The Final Revelation from Allah
Revelation during Ramadan
Allah's promise to preserve the Qur an
The Muslims only follow the Quran
The Names of the Qur an
The Quran is the Speech of Allah
The Speech of Allah is eternal
Allah's Speech is with sound
Allah's Speech consists of words and letters
The Message of the Quran
The Three Stages of Revelation ■ 119
The first stage of revelation
The second stage of revelation
The third stage of revelation
Gradual revelation to Prophet Muhammad $&
The benefits of gradual revelation
Why were the earlier Divinely revealed books revealed instantaneously?
The Challenge in the Quran
A literary and linguistic miracle
Human or Divine authorship?
What is a miracle?
Arabic literary forms
Why is the Quran a miracle?
The challenge in the Quran
Trie Quran is impossible to match linguistically
Is the Quran poetry?
Is the Quran ordinary prose (mursal)?
Is the Quran rhymed prose (saf) ?
How are stylistic variations unique to the Quran?
145
Compilation and Preservation 205
Memorisation of the Quran during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad HI
The writing of the Quran in Makkah
Teaching and memorisation in Madinah
Teaching missions to other cities
The writing of the Quran in Madinah
The first compilation of the Quran
Compilation during the rule of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab
The Uthmanic compilation
Summary of the compilation and preservation of the Qur an from 610 to 656 CE
The Qur an Through the Ages — 257
Development of writing styles
Development of Qur anic reading aids
Quran manuscripts written between the 7th and 8th Centuries CE
Quran manuscripts written between the 9th and 12th Centuries CE
Qur 'an manuscripts written between the 13th and 16th Centuries CE
Qur an manuscripts written between the 17th and 20th Centuries CE
16 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Quran in Print
The Quran Gallery
Qur an Binding and Markers
References
Index
Foreword
This stunning book is tor those readers with an interest
in seeing how the Noble Quran has been preserved over
the last fourteen centuries. Using fine examples from the
magnificent collection of Quranic manuscripts held by
Exhibition Islam, many of which have been displayed
here for the first time, this work shows how the Arabic
words of the Quran have remained unchanged since its
revelation.
The Exhibition Islam Quran Collection presented in this
book has been carefully collected over a number of years
and features a wide array of manuscripts from across
the Islamic world. The collection as a whole highlights
how the text of the Qur'an has been preserved over the
centuries across the globe. Indeed no other book has
undergone such rigorous preservation criteria, nor been
as widely copied, as the Qur'an. It has an unbroken chain
of preservation from the time of revelation in the 7th
century to the modern day; both orally and in written
form.
One of the finest aspects of Exhibition Islam's collection
is that it features Quranic manuscripts written during
every century of Islam and by a variety of people. Master
calligraphers would apply their expertise in producing
the most exquisite and lavish manuscripts. Professional
scribes would write hundreds or perhaps thousands
ot manuscripts for sale to the general public. Amateurs
would write personal copies which would very often
be passed down through their family, generation after
generation. No matter who would write the Qur'an, it
was a painstakingly difficult process which would require
checking and correcting before distribution to ensure the
preservation of the Divine Words.
A particularly unique quality is the sheer range of geo-
graphic regions which feature as part of the Exhibition
Islam Collection. With an area stretching from Spain
across to Indonesia and from Africa up to China the
wondrous and sometimes lavish calligraphy which
has been used to write historical Qur'ans has inspired
generations and is showcased in the collection. Many
of the Qur'ans are complete and in excellent condition,
whilst others are in a very delicate state, or consist ot just
a few pages or even a rare single folio in some cases.
The type of writing style used by devoted Muslims to
copy the Qur'an would have depended on the region as
well as personal preference. The collection therefore con-
tains examples of Quranic calligraphy ranging from kufic,
eastern kufic, muhaqqaq, naskh and maghribi as well as a
number of other distinct regional styles. Whereas many
of the manuscripts have very clearly defined script styles,
some combine a multitude of scripts to complement and
beautify the text, whilst others have hybrid scripts which
are unique and unlikely to be found elsewhere.
In more recent times traditional handwriting of Qur'ans
has become rare with the widespread use of the modern
printing press. Exhibition Islam is also privileged to have
in its possession early printed Qur'ans, both in Arabic as
well as early translations into European languages. The
collection has been further enhanced by the addition of
miniature Qur'ans, including a complete Qur an that has
been etched onto a plastic sheet the size of a debit card
using modern laser technology.
Opposite
Elaborately designed end
page from a 16th century
Qur anic manuscript with
the whole of Surah an-Naas
(Mankind, 114) written in
mulch. The surah header is
written in white riqa script
upon blue ground enclosed
within a foliate panel. The
main text panel is divided
into three illuminated
compartments framed by a
large floral border. A variety
of interlocking shapes
project into the outer margins
on three sides with extending
blue finiais. Individual verses
are marked with simple
rosettes pointed in blue.
FOREWORD 19
Exhibition Islam's Quran Collection started with a few
manuscripts from the Middle East, North Africa and
the Ottoman Empire and slowly expanded to include
examples from across the world. Exhibition Islam's
curators then worked diligently to bring into the collec-
tion, everyday Qur'ans that not only enhanced the quality
of the collection but also told the story of its preservation.
Each manuscript is therefore unique, not only in terms of
the writing, but also in the materials used such as the type
of paper or ink. Some cultures and geographic regions
have used locally available materials for the production
of paper, whilst other manuscripts have been written on
imported machine made paper. The earliest manuscripts
are often written on prepared animal skin known as
vellum or parchment. The styles of binding also vary
considerably according to the region and period. Some
African Qur'ans are not bound at all and would have been
carried as loose pages in a satchel or pouch.
Thus each manuscript carries its own story, and is a part
of the overall process of preservation and transmission of
the Divine text. Exhibition Islam is proud to be part of
the process of preservation and takes its role seriously in
safeguarding these unique and irreplaceable manuscripts,
and at the same time making them available for the world
to see, witness and testify that the words of Noble Quran
have indeed not changed since its revelation in the 7th
century CE.
Photography of the collection for the production of this
book has also been another major task that was carried
out by Exhibition Islam's own design team. An exciting
part of the imaging process was handling pieces that are
beautifully illuminated with decorative opening and cen-
tre pages or that have rare calligraphy styles from remote
regions of the world. It was also fascinating to come across
calligraphers' names or the date when the Qur'an was
written, or some other notes inscribed in the margins.
Due to the delicate nature and age of many of the
manuscripts, flash photography and harsh lighting was
avoided. All of the Qur'an manuscripts were therefore,
photographed under natural daylight using a high
definition digital camera. Most of the Qur'ans and single
pages were photographed from multiple angles using
macro and extreme close-up lens settings. This process
resulted in a huge expansion of Exhibition Islam's image
library, which presented the editorial team with thous-
ands of images to choose from to complete this project. It
is also important to note that some of the Qur'ans featur-
ed in this book have been printed larger than their actual
size for the readers benefit. For the sake of completion
we have also included a number of famous Qur'ans held
by the Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul and the British
Library in London.
The Exhibition Islam Qur'an Collection saw a major
launch at The Islamic Cultural Centre in London during
2005. This event was unique because manuscripts from
every century of Islam were on display for the first time
in the UK. Since then parts of the collection have been
showcased in many cities across the world including
Copenhagan (Denmark), Tromso and Oslo (Norway),
Cape Town (South Africa), Doha (Qatar) and Dubai
(UAE).
Lastly as the Noble Qur'an is such a unique book, we felt
that any book which describes some of its Divine aspects
should also contain some special features. This is one of
the reasons behind the very large format of this current
book and the fact that we have given it seven different
names displayed on separate title pages.
Exhibition Islam Editorial Team.
Ramadan 1430 AH.
September 2009 CE.
In the Name of Allah, The Most Compassionate, The Most Merciful.
"The Most Gracious (Allah) !
He has taught (you mankind) the Qur an (by His Mercy).
He created man. He taught him eloquent speech'*
Surah ar-Rahmaan (The Most Gracious) 55: 1-4.
In the Name of Allah, Hie Most Compassionate, The Most Merciful.
"Blessed is He in Whose Hand is the dominion; and He is Able to do all things.
Who has created death and life that He may test which of you is best in deed.
And He is the All-Mighty, the Oft-Forgiving."
Surah al-Mulk (The Dominion) 67: 1-2.
Abu Hurayrah reported that Prophet Muhammad said:
"He who does not thank Allah does not thank people."
(Abu Dawood)
All Praise is due to Allah. He is The Most High. The All-Powerful and The All-Mighty.
The All-Knowing and The All-Wise. He is The One True God. The Lord of the Universe and there is no one like Him.
We praise Him, seek His help and ask His forgiveness.
We thank Allah for giving us the opportunity to complete this magnificent project.
We would also like to thank all of those who have helped Exhibition Islam over the years
as well as those who have contributed to the Exhibition Islam Qur an Collection.
May Allah accept from us all our good deeds.
Ameen.
Finally, we kindly request that everyone respects this book with the utmost care
due to the presence of Quranic verses in Arabic, which Muslims regard
as the Spoken Word of Allah, The Most High.
Unless otherwise stated, all of the Quranic manuscripts shown in this book form part of the
Exhibition Islam Quran Collection.
EXHIBITION
ISLAM
THE MAGNIFICENT
An Exhibition Islam book
Munir Ahmad
'O Allah have mercy upon his soul and enter him into Paradise.'
Ameen.
29
Rashida Begum Alam
O Lord bestow your mercy upon our dear mother just as she loved us and took care of us when we were young.'
Ameen.
31
1
Nasreen Asmat Hussain
'O Allah have mercy upon her and let her dwell in Paradise forever.'
Aineen.
J3
Hajiz Ahmad Ashraf
'O Allah have mercy upon our dear teacher and enter him into Paradise.'
Muhammad Arshad
O Allah forgive our dear brother and let him dwell in Paradise forever.'
Ameen.
■ . *
***
36 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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38 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE
MAGNIFICENT
Unrivalled Beauty and Tranquillity
THE MAGNIFICENT
QUR'AN
Manuscripts Through the Ages
Guidance, comfort, beauty and inimitability. The Noble
Quran represents all of these qualities and much more; it
forms the very foundation of the Islamic faith, a remem-
brance in times of joy and anguish, a sea of knowledge
and a treasury ot wisdom, all in the most exquisite style.
Its verses are etched in the hearts and minds of hundreds
of millions of people, both young and old. Its melodious
recitation can be heard night and day around the globe.
For the faithful it provides an insight into our ultimate re-
ality and it represents a unique sign from God Almighty
(Allah 1 ).
Allah, the Most High, has preserved the Quran and
guaranteed it from corruption until the end ot time. Its
meticulous preservation and transmission over the cen-
turies in written form and orally through memorisation
has ensured that the Qur'an available today is the same as
that which was revealed to Prophet Muhammad 1 in the
7th century. The style of Arabic script may have varied
over the centuries, but you will not find any two copies
of the Qur'an that differ in content, regardless of the era
or region in which they were written. The companions
of Prophet Muhammad i£c memorised the Qur an directly
from him. They subsequently passed it onto their stu-
dents, who in turn became the teachers for the next gen-
eration. This unique cycle of learning and teaching has
continued over the centuries to the present day, with
the result that there is an unbroken and authenticated
chain ot transmission through memorisation stretch-
ing back to Prophet Muhammad himself. Combined
with the availability of vast numbers of hand written his-
torical manuscripts, this represents unequivocal evidence
that the Qur'an we have today is indeed the same as that
revealed to Prophet Muhammad rr-.
This book is divided into three sections, the first deals
with matters such as the previous Books of Allah, the
fact that the Qur'an is the Speech oj Allah, its gradual
revelation, why the Qur'an is a unique and miraculous
text and the challenge in the Qur'an. Interspersed thro-
ugh this section are beautiful examples of hand written
Quranic manuscripts from different parts of the Islamic
world. These have been grouped together by region
and arranged in the following order; Ottoman, Middle
Eastern, European, African, Persian, Indian subcontinent,
Chinese and Far Eastern Quranic manuscripts.
The second part of the book 'The Qur'an through the Ages'
shows manuscripts that date back to the very first century
of Islam and provides a highly visual and fascinating jour-
ney through the last fourteen centuries. This section high-
lights the fact that the Noble Qur'an is unchanged and
remains preserved in its original Arabic language, with-
out the addition, omission or alteration of a single word
since the time of Prophet Muhammad j>. To illustrate this
unique point, alongside every historical manuscript, we
have shown an image of the corresponding page from a
standard modern Qur'an for the purposes of comparison.
In addition, there are a series of maps which chart the ori-
gin of some of the most important manuscripts from the
Exhibition Islam Qur'an Collection; the maps also show
the spread of Islam over the centuries.
The third section of the book provides a brief overview ot
when the Qur'an first came into print. At the end there is
a gallery with annotated images featuring more Quranic
manuscripts held by Exhibition Islam. In this section we
have also endeavoured to present examples ot Qur'an
manuscripts held by the British Library, London.
Opposite
Close-up view of the word
Allah' in muhaqc[M] Arabic
script from a 1 2th century
Mamluk Qur'an written on
texture rich handmade paper.
PREFACE 49
Introduction
The Quran is the sacred book of Islam and is universally
regarded by all Muslims as the Spoken Word of Allah,
which was revealed by the Angel Jibreel (Gabriel)
to Prophet Muhammad over a period of 23 years.
Unchanged since the start of its revelation in the year
610 CE, the Qur'an is unquestionably one of the world's
most important and influential texts, providing a source
of guidance and inspiration for hundreds of millions of
Muslims around the world. For more than 1400 years,
the Qur'an has functioned as a principal catalyst in the
transformation of capricious societies towards stability
progression and modernity. It contains a universal
message for the guidance of all of mankind, and it remains
unique in its explanation of the purpose of life.
In Islam, the Quran commands the highest rank and
status and provides the primary source of Islamic faith
and doctrine. The name al-Qur 'an', is not a name that was
introduced by Muslims, rather it is the very name that
Allah chose to refer to this Book. The word 'al- Qur'an' is a
verbal noun in the Arabic language that literally translates
to mean 'the reading*. Historically, however, the word
Qur'an has always been used to refer to the Book that was
revealed by Allah to Prophet Muhammad dfe.
Structurally, the Qur'an is divided into 114 chapters
(surahs) with over 6,000 verses (nva/is).TheArabic word,
ayah actually means 'miracle' or 'sign' emphasising that the
sentences are not just verses of a poem but each phrase is
a sign from the Almighty Creator. Each of the Quran's
1 14 chapters are given a title according to its contents.
The Qur'an opens with a beautiful short prayer known as
al-Fatihah (The Opening) with the remaining chapters
ordered according to the instructions left by Prophet
Muhammad .
In the vast majority of written copies of the Qur'an, the
opening surah is usually highly decorated with splendid
geometric floral patterns. There are also other useful divi-
sions of the Qur'an, for example the thirty equally sized
parts called juz', or the seven equally sized parts called
manzil. These divisions are helpful for memorisation and
for those who wish to complete recitation of the whole
Qur'an within a month or in a week. In many Qur'ans,
juz' are further divided into two hizb with each being sub-
divided into quarters. Surahs are also usually divided into
parts called ruku, usually indicated by the Arabic letter
ayn with a number in the margin.
The Qur'an has traditionally been recited aloud, but its
preservation and transmission over the centuries has
been both oral through memorisation and by writing.
From the very beginning of its Divine revelation, Prophet
Muhammad -it was caused to instantaneously memorise
the Qur'an as it was being revealed. Initially, the verses
were committed to memory and transmitted from
believer to believer. Later on, as the number of verses
revealed began to increase, Prophet Muhammad 2£ would
have one of his many scribes immediately write down
the revelation and also gave instructions as to where the
verse should be placed. The result was that by the time
Prophet Muhammad fe£ passed away in the year 632 CE
the Qur'an had been completely memorised by numerous
companions in the order that it exists today. Moreover,
it had also been written down in its entirety on various
materials such as bone, papyrus, palm leaves, stone and
on fragments of parchment or vellum. All of these factors
were vital for the collection of a master Qur'an codex
(mushaf) that would occur a few years later.
Opposite
The first five verses of
Surah al-Anbiyaa (The
Prophets, 2 1 ) from a
complete Ottoman Qur'an,
1 7th or 1 8th century. This
magnificent Qur'an is finely
written in naskh script
with highly decorated
chapter headers and floral
decoration on the side. Naskh
literally means 'copying' or
'transcription' and is the most
common script of the six
basic styles used for writing
Arabic. These round scripts
commonly referred to as the
'Six Pens' gained popularity
from the late 1 1th century
onwards and eventually
replaced the large angular
knfic type scripts. The six
pens are grouped in sized
pairs; tawqi' and its smaller
counterpart riqa; thuluth and
naskh; nmhai]ijaq and rayhani.
From these, many other
forms have been developed
over the centuries.
INTRODUCTION 51
Right
Ornate opening pages
from an early 1 7th century
Ottoman Qur'an. Beautifully
written in naskh script with
floral patterns surrounded by
a geometric gold leaf border.
Location: Topkapi Museum,
Istanbul.
■ j|
Opposite page
Heavily decorated incipit
(opening) pages showing
Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, 1 ) and Surah al-
Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) from
a Qur 'an written in nasi:/!,
Ottoman, 1 8th century.
It is also important when discussing the revelation of
the Qur 'an to mention the condition of the Arab people
living during the time of Prophet Muhammad -it. Hie
Arabs were largely nomadic, with only a few tribes living
in cities. Family feuds and tribal wars that could last
generations were the norm. Women were considered no
better than domestic animals, slavery was common place
and the poor and helpless in society were treated harshly.
Some desert Arab tribes also engaged in the horrible
ritual of burying alive their unwanted female infants.
The religion of the Arabs was a curious mixture of
polytheism and a belief in Allah. The Kaaba 1 at the heart
of Makkah was home to some 360 idols. The great tribe
of Quraysh were the custodians of the Kaaba. They
dominated the city, maintaining a position of honour and
respect amongst all Arabs. On the other hand there were
also some virtuous qualities present in the Arab character
such as courage, hospitality and a sense of personal and
tribal honour that would be enviable even today. The
spoken word, as a means of communication was given
precedence over the written word. Poetry in particular
was regarded as a highly valued art form.
Tribes would compete against each other to see who
could produce the most skilled and eloquent poets.
During the annual fair of Ukaadh in Makkah, poets
would descend upon the sacred city from many parts of
Arabia to compete for the honour of having their poem
displayed on the door of the Kaaba for the whole of the
following year.
It was against this background that Allah revealed the
Qur 'an in an Arabic language that was so emotive and
eloquent that the Arabs could clearly see that this was
inimitable; and a miracle from their Lord. Allah challeng-
ed people at the time to bring forth something similar
to the Qur an but to this day the challenge has not been
met.
"And if you are in doubt as to what We have sent down
to Our servant, then produce a chapter similar to it, if
you are truthful. But if you do not do it, and of a surety
you cannot do it, then fear the fire whose fuel are men
and stones, prepared for the disbelievers."
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 23-24.
52 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
■
V
1 •
Both sides from a 9th century Quranic manuscript written on vellum containing five lines of kufic script in gold with sepia outlines. This leaf from
the Exhibition Islam Quran Collection is from a famous Qur'an written entirely in gold, known to have once been housed in Kairouan, Tunisia.
Other leaves from the same manuscript are found in various public and private collections, including the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; the
National Library and the National Institute of Archaeology, Tunis; Beit al-Qur'an, Bahrain; the Tareq Rajab Museum and the al-Sabah collection,
Kuwait; the Nasser D. Khali li collection, and the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 2
The strikingly angular and very stylized kufic form of writing in this Qur'an leaf was used extensively during the early Islamic period, but was largely
superseded by more rounded cursive styles such as naskh after the 10th century. Kufic script, however, remained in use for surah headings and
marginal ornaments as well as for decorative purposes in architectural applications either on stone or mosaic. The text is vocalised using red dots
with further diacritics marked in green and blue. Individual verses are separated by gold rosettes circled in blue. The page has undergone some
repair work to damaged suffered around the edges. The writing on the right hand page starts with the 6th word (baydhaa) of verse 12 from Surah
an-Naml (The Ants, 27) and continues through to the left hand page ending on the last word (mufsideen) of verse 14.
1
INTRODUCTION 55
Pages from an early Ottoman
Quran written in two
different script styles, 16th
century. There are single
lines of large muhaqqaq at
the top and bottom of each
page with ten lines of smaller
naskh script in between.
Floral shapes above the
line are used to designate
verse endings. Vowel and
punctuation markings are
penned in black, red and
ultramarine. The shamsa
medallions in the margins
indicate the start and finish
of the 14tli section ( niku )
within the surah. The right
hand page starts with part of
verse 1 10 from Surah an-Nahl
(The Bee, 16) and continues
through to verse 122 on the
left hand page.
56 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Need for Messages from Allah
The Quran was revealed at a time when humanity was
in the depth of darkness. Since the beginning of creation,
Allah in His Infinite Mercy has not left humanity without
guidance as to how to conduct our lives. He has sent us
many messages of guidance through His various prophets
and messengers. These noble souls taught people the true
purpose of existence (i.e. to worship Allah alone) and they
also showed people through example hou to live pious
lives by following the Divine laws laid down by Allah.
In today's world of materialism, scientific advancement
and social decay, much of humanity remains ambivalent
towards Allah's Final Message, delivered by the Last
Messenger of Allah, Prophet Muhammad Indeed,
those who turn away from Allah's Message are described
in the Quran as frightened wild donkeys fleeing a hunter
and ignoring all around them.
"Then what is wrong with them (i.e. the polytheists,
the disbelievers) that they turn away from (receiving)
admonition? As if they were (frightened) wild
donkeys. Fleeing from a hunter, or a lion, or a beast
of prey."
Surah al-Muddaththir (Hie One Enveloped) 74: 49-51.
Another very important point to note is that the
command to worship Allah alone without associating any
partners with Him, as well as following the laws that He
has established, has remained the same from the very first
prophet, Adam (peace be upon him) through to the last
Prophet, Muhammad fe. Allah explains this in the Quran
by saying:
"He (Allah) has ordained for you the same religion
(islamic Monotheism) which He ordained for Noah,
and that which We have revealed to you (O Muhammad ),
and that which We ordained for Abraham, Moses and
Jesus saying you should establish religion and make no
divisions in it. Intolerable for the disbelievers is that
(Islamic Monotheism) to which you (O Muhammad
£s) call them. Allah chooses for Himself whom He
wills, and guides to Himself who turns to Him in
repentance and in obedience."
Surah ash-Shooraa (The Consultation) 42: 13.
The previous Books of Allah
Many of the previous prophets and messengers received
guidance from Allah in the form of Divinely revealed
books. These were meant for the purposes of teaching the
people of that time; a fact that is highlighted throughout
the Noble Quran:
"Say (O Muslims) : "We believe in Allah and that which
has been sent down to us and that which has been sent
down to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and to the
offspring of the twelve sons of Jacob, and that which
has been given to Moses and Jesus, and that which has
been given to the Prophets from their Lord.
We make no distinction between any of them, and to
Him we have submitted (in Islam)"
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 136.
Opposite
The start of Surah al-'AIaq,
(The Clot, 96) from a 16th
century copy of a Quran
manuscript written in the
Middle East. The first hve
verses of this surah were the
first to be revealed to Prophet
Muhammad "Read! In
the Name of your Lord Who
has created (all that exists).
He has created man from a
clot. Read ! And your Lord
is the Most Generous. Who
has taught (the writing) by
the pen. He has taught man
that which he knew not."
This visually intense Qur'an is
extravagantly illuminated, and
written in a variety of styles.
Each text page has large lines
of muUaqqiiq at the top and
bottom, thuluth in the middle
with four lines of rnnkh in
compartments in between.
The text is set within a bed of
multi-coloured foliate work
bordered by decorated panels
on either side that form a
rectangular frame. Floret
shapes are used to mark the
end of a verse. Following
convention, directional
ornaments on the wide
margins are inscribed using
kufic style script.
THE NEED FOR MESSAGES FROM ALLAH 59
Opposite
The first five verses of Surah
al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2)
from an 18th century Qur an
written in the Ottoman
empire. The manuscript is
handwritten in naskh and set
within a trellis of geometric
patterns. Interestingly, the
header is written in thuluth
script, which is recognized
by its large and rounded
endings.
Allah also mentions sending revelation to His Prophets in
the following verse:
"Verily, We have sent the Revelation to you (O Muhammad
) as We sent the Revelation to Noah and the Prophets
after him; We (also) sent the Revelation to Abraham,
IshmaeL Isaac, Jacob, and offspring of the twelve sons
of Jacob, Jesus, Job, Jonah, Aaron, and Solomon; and
to David We gave the Psalms. And Messengers We have
mentioned to you before, and Messengers We have
not mentioned to you, - and to Moses Allah spoke
directly. Messengers as bearers of good news as well
as of warning in order that mankind should have no
plea against Allah after the (coming of) Messengers.
And Allah is Ever All-Powerful, All-Wise."
Surah an-Nisa (The Women) 4: 163 - 165.
In another verse Allah mentions some of the previously re-
vealed books and the fact that the Quran confirms these
scriptures. The Qur'an, however, is directed at providing
the whole of mankind with guidance; not just a specific na-
tion or tribe.
"Allah! None has the right to be worshipped but He,
the Ever Living, the One Who sustains and protects
all that exists. It is He Who has sent down the Book
(the Qur'an) to you (Muhammad ^) with truth,
confirming what came before it. And He sent down
the Torah and the Gospel, aforetime, as a guidance
to mankind. And He sent down the Criterion [of
judgement between right and wrong (this Qur'an)].
Truly, those who disbelieve in the verses of Allah,
for them there is a severe torment; and Allah is All-
Mighty, All-Able of Retribution.
Truly, nothing is hidden from Allah, in the earth or
in the heaven. He it is Who shapes you in the wombs
as He wills. None has the right to be worshipped but
He, the All-Mighty, the All-Wise. It is He Who has sent
down to you (Muhammad i --%) the Book (this Qur an).
In it are verses that are entirely clear, they are the
foundations of the Book; and others not entirely
clear.
So, as for those in whose hearts there is a deviation
(from the truth) they follow that which is not
entirely clear thereof, seeking discord, and seeking
for its hidden meanings, but none knows its hidden
meanings except Allah. And those who are firmly
grounded in knowledge say: "We believe in it; the
whole of it (clear and unclear verses) are from our
Lord." And none receive admonition except men of
understanding."
Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 2-7.
The 'People of the Book'
All of the Divinely revealed books preceding the Qur'an
have been either lost through the course of history, or
changed so drastically that they no longer represent the
original revelation. For example, the present day scriptures
of the Jews and Christians do not contain their original
revealed content. The difference between Muslims and
the followers of other faiths is that only the Muslims take
their guidance from a complete Divine revelation, that
is available in its original language, without having been
changed in anyway by man.
The Jews no longer have access to the complete teachings
of Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) and they as a
people have rejected two of the major prophets who
came after him. Similarly, the Christians have extremely
limited knowledge of the original teachings of Prophet
Jesus (peace be upon him) as any written material
disappeared a few decades after him. Towards the end of
the first century a few biographical works did appear by
anonymous authors, but none had first hand knowledge
of Jesus's life. These texts form part of the New Testament
Bible that we have today. However, these have been
altered to such an extent that even though there are many
historical manuscripts in existence today, no two are the
same.
Despite the complete lack of textual integrity, Allah
still frequently uses the term 'People of the book (or
scripture)' in the Qur'an when referring to the Jews
and the Christians. This is because they have definitely
received Divine revelation in the past.
60 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE NEED FOR MESSAGES FROM ALLAH 61
Part of an early 20th century
decorative Quran scroll
showing the first four words
of Surah ad-Dhuha (The
Morning Hours, 93). Hand
written in large thuluth script
and splendidly illustrated
with strong use of colour.
Each word of the surah is
written within alternating
blue and red panels. Most
likely of Syrian or Lebanese
origin. The scroll measures
5 metres in length and has a
width of 30 cm.
However, Allah also makes it clear that these earlier
Divine revelations are no longer valid, because they have
been superseded by the final revelation; the Qur'an, Even
a cursory study of the Qur'an reveals that a large part of
it deals with the 'People of the Book'. Allah highlights
where they have strayed from His commandments and
calls upon them throughout to accept His Final Message
that was delivered by His Final Prophet and Messenger,
Muhammad For example Allah says:
"Say (O Muhammad •: :): "O people of the Scripture
(Jews and Christians)! Come to a word that is just
between us and you, that we worship none but Allah
(Alone), and that we associate no partners with Him,
and that none of us shall take others as lords besides
Allah." Then, if they turn away, say: "Bear witness that
we are Muslims.''
Surah aal-Imraan (Hie Family of hnraan) 3: 64.
"O people of the Scripture! Now has come to you Our
Messenger (Muhammad making (things) clear to
you, after a break in (the series of) Messengers, lest
you say: "There came to us no bringer of glad tidings
and no warner." But now has come to you a bringer of
glad tidings and a warner. And Allah is Able to do all
things."
Surah al-Maaidah (The Table Spread) 5: 19.
The nature of the previous books
In mankind's ancient past, writing was largely composed
of inscriptions on items such as leather, wood and stone
tablets. Pages bound in book form did not exist so written
text would have been mostly in the form of separate
sheets. The scripture that was revealed by Allah to the
Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him), for instance,
is described in the Qur'an as Sithuf or sheets'; as in the
following verses:
"Verily, this is in the former Scriptures
Scriptures (Sheets) of Abraham and Moses."
The
Surah al-A'la (Hie Most High) 87: 18-19.
"Or is he not informed with what is in the Pages
(Scripture) of Moses, and of Abraham who fulfilled
(or conveyed) all that (Allah ordered him to do or
convey)."
Surah an-Najm (Hie Star) 53: 36-37.
The 'sheets' sent down to Prophet Abraham (peace be
upon him), however, are no longer with us and have been
lost long ago. Similarly, the scripture that Allah revealed
to Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) was the Taurat,
although the Qur'an refers to it both as the ' book' and the
sheets'. For example, when referring to the Taurat as the
book, Allah Says in the Qur'an:
62 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
"Then, We gave Moses the Book, to complete
(Our Favour) upon those who would do right, and
explaining all things in detail and a guidance and a
mercy that they might believe in the Meeting with
their Lord."
Surah al-An'aam (The Cattle) 6: 154.
A further example where Allah refers to the Taurat by
name, is in Surah al-Maaidah where Allah Says:
"Verily, We did send down the Taurat, therein was
guidance and light, by which the Prophets, who
submitted themselves to Allah's Will, judged for the
Jews. And the rabbis and the priests, for to them was
entrusted the protection of Allah's Book, and they
were witnesses thereto. Therefore fear not men but
fear Me (O Jews) and sell not My Verses for a miser-
able price. And whosoever does not judge by what
Allah has revealed, such are the disbelievers."
Surah al-Maaidah (The Table Spread) 5: 44.
After Prophet Moses (peace be upon him), when the
Jewish tribes, collectively known as the 'Children of Israel'
had strayed from Allah's guidance, Allah sent further
revelation to Prophet David (peace be upon him). This
noble Prophet then led and guided the Children of Israel
back towards the worship of Allah alone.
The particular revelation that was given to Prophet David
(peace be upon him) was called the Zabur (Psalms) . In the
Arabic language zabara has the same meaning as kataba
which means 'wrote'. The Arabic word Zabur also has the
same meaning as kitaab which means 'book'. So when the
word Zabur is mentioned in the Qur 'an it usually refers to
the book of revelation sent to the Prophet David (peace
be upon him).
"Verily, We have sent the Revelation to you (O
Muhammad 5$ ) ) as We sent the Revelation to Noah and
the Prophets after him; We (also) sent the Revelation
to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the offspring
of the twelve sons of Jacob, Jesus, Job, Jonah, Aaron,
and Solomon; and to David We gave the Zabur!*
Surah an-Nisa (The Women) 4: 163.
Again Allah says in the Quran when referring to Prophet
David (peace be upon him) and the Zabur.
"And your Lord knows best all who are in the heavens
and the earth. And indeed, We have preferred some
of the Prophets to others, and to (David) We gave the
Zabur r
Surah al-Isra (The Night journey) 17: 55.
1 6th century Qur an
written in nutlhhjqtu] script
from the Middle East. The
scribe has used a very hne
pen and copied the surah
name in light green and red
ink. There are eleven lines
of text per page within a
simple rectangular frame.
Most of the pages have been
repaired around the edges.
The pages are open at Surah
Muhammad (47).
THE NEED FOR MESSAGES FROM ALLAH 63
A text page from a late 1 9th
century Ottoman Quranic
manuscript written in nasldi
script on very thin highly
polished paper. The text
starts with verse 149 of Surah
aat-Imraan (The Family
ot Imraan, 3) and ends on
verse 153. The large floral
medallion in the margin
indicates that the reader is
three quarters of the way
through the first hizb of the
fourth }uz.
Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) was the last of the
long line of prophets and messengers that Allah sent ex-
clusively to the Children of Israel. The revelation which
he received is referred to in the Quran as the Injeel (Gos-
pel).
Known in the Quran as Eesa ibn Maryam (Jesus, son
of Mary), Muslims have immense love and respect for
this Messenger of Allah, He is regarded as a Prophet, a
reformist, the 'anointed one' (Messiah) and the 'spirit of
Allah' who was elevated to heaven. He is held in very high
esteem by Muslims everywhere and is regarded as one of
the greatest Messengers sent by Allah. His name is rarely
mentioned without invoking Allah's peace upon him.
Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) was born miraculous-
ly, he spoke from the cradle as a baby, cured leprosy and
those born deaf and blind, raised the dead and blew life
into inanimate objects - all by the Will of Allah. Muslims
do not believe that he was Allah or part of a trinity or that
he was crucified or that he was the 'son of God'. In the
Quran Allah refers to the Injeel as follows:
"And in their footsteps, We sent Jesus, son of Mary,
confirming the Torah that had come before him,
and We gave him the Injeel (Gospel), in which was
guidance and light and confirmation of the Torah that
had come before it, a guidance and an admonition for
the pious.
Let the people of the Injeel (Gospel) judge by what
Allah has revealed therein.
And whosoever does not judge by what Allah has
revealed (then) such (people) are the rebellious i.e.
disobedient."
Surah al-Maaidah (The Table Spread) 5 : 46-47.
Again Allah Says:
"Indeed We have sent Our Messengers with clear
proofs, and revealed with them the Scripture and the
Balance (justice) that mankind may keep up justice.
And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power
(in matters of war), as well as many benefits for
mankind, that Allah may test who it is that will help
Him (His religion) and His Messengers in the unseen.
Verily, Allah is All-Strong, All-Mighty. And indeed,
We sent Noah and Abraham, and placed in their
offspring Prophethood and Scripture. And among
them there are some who are guided,- but many of
them are rebellious.
Then, We sent after them Our Messengers, and We
sent Jesus, — son of Mary, and gave him the Injeel
(Gospel). And We ordained in the hearts of those
who followed him, compassion and mercy. But the
monasticism which they invented for themselves, We
did not prescribe for them, but (they sought it) only to
please Allah therewith, but that they did not observe
it with the right observance. So, We gave those among
them who believed, their (due) reward; but many of
them are rebellious.
Oyou who believe [in Moses (i.e. Jews) and Jesus (i.e.
Christians)] ! Fear Allah, and believe in His Messenger
(Muhammad •:■■-.), He will give you a double portion of
His Mercy, and He will give you a light by which you
shall walk (straight). And He will forgive you. And
Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
So that the people of the Scripture (jews and Chris-
tians) may know that they have no power whatsoever
over the Grace of Allah, and that (His) Grace is (entire-
ly) in His Hand to bestow it on whomsoever He wills.
And Allah is the Owner of Great Bounty."
Surah al-Hadeed (The Iron) 57: 25-29.
64 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
U 0
9 , s '
-yes j ^ "
Sc.
At over 700 years old, this late
1 3th century Qur'an from Syria
or possibly Egypt is written in
elegant muhaqqaq script with
surah headers copied in tlntluth
using red ink. This impressive
Qur an was written by a master
calligrapher on thick, high
quality hand made paper and
measures 36cm by 25cm. The
Qur'an contains 280 pages
with thirteen lines of text per
page. Over time some of the
leaves have been damaged at
the corners so have undergone
repair work. Individual verses
are not numbered; three simple
red dots are used to indicate
the end of each verse. The
red text on the teft hand page
written sideways in the margin
indicates the end of the surahs
first section. The pages show
the end of Surah ash-Shu'araa
(The Poets, 26) and the start of
Surah an-Naml (The Ants, 2" ).
66 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
1 ->
p
—J
<
uu
u
i
p
H
uu
u
-
I
Further pages from Exhibition Islam's Mamluk Qur an showing Surah an-Nasr (The Help, 1 10), al-Masadd (The Palm Fibre, 111), al-Ikhlaas (The
Purity, 1 1 2), al-Falaq (The Daybreak, 113) and an-Naas (Mankind, 1 14). The manuscript has one large decorated roundel on the last page and was
most probably copied for a mosque or someone of wealth.
Opposite page
One of the most powerful verses of the entire Qur an known as Ayatul Kursi (The verse of the chair or footstool) in Surah al-Baqarah describing the
Creator in all of His Magnificence and Glory. "Allah! La ilaha ilia Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), Al-Hayyul-Qayyum
(the Ever Living, the One Who sustains and protects all that exists). Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. To Him belongs whatever
is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. Who is he that can intercede with Him except with His Permission? He knows what
happens to them (His creatures) in this world, and what will happen to them in the Hereafter. And they will never encompass anything
of His Knowledge except that which He wills. His Kursi extends over the heavens and the earth, and He feels no fatigue in guarding and
preserving them. And He is the Most High, the Most Great." Surah al-Baqarah, (The Heifer) 2: 25S.
68 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
m I
4 j *1 I l»
■ |«
■ f
I F
I ■
■
-1
■
A small 10th century Quran
from Syria or Iraq written
in archaic naskh script using
black ink. This compact
Qur'an is one of the oldest
complete extant manuscripts in
Exhibition Islam's Collection.
The Qur'an consists of 300
pages and is only 8cm long and
4cm wide. Surah headers are
written in a larger cursive style
script in white within a gold
panel. There are fifteen lines of
densely packed script per page
within a light frame. The text
is fully vocalised in black. Tear
drop motifs in the margins
indicate the end of every fifth
verse and gold roundels made
up of concentric circles mark
every ten verses. Individual
verses are separated by
simple circles. The Qur'an is
leather bound and embossed
with a number of decorative
emblems. The pages show the
last part of Surah ash-Shu'araa
(The Poets, 26) and the start of
Surah an-Naml (The Ants, 27).
I ■
H
I I
* , I
I
ft
V^i\ r >;
7N
i 1 1 I V ♦ 4- H~ If'. ,( *%"
70 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE NEED FOR MESSAGES FROM ALLAH 71
• j x I I ■ H
. * .. »
>*& 1
A hand written kufic leaf and
its reverse side originating in
the Middle East, 13th century.
By this period, kufic script
had been largely replaced by
more cursive styles of writing,
so examples of kufic Qur anic
manuscripts produced during
this period are rare. The
calligrapher has only made
use of very sparse vocalisation
in red ink even though the
Qur 'anic marking system
was in wide use by the 13th
century.
The image on the opposite
page shows Surah adh-
Dhaariyaat (The Winds that
Scatter, Si) starting from
verse 32 and ending with the
first three letters of verse 45
on this page.
I
I «,
72 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
*'*.;%*•# law it -
THE NEED FOR MESSAGES FROM ALLAH 73
The Final Revelation from Allah
As the Quran represents the final revelation from Allah
to all of humanity, it is the most comprehensive and
detailed of the Divinely revealed books which Allah
chose to send to mankind. The Quran has therefore
replaced all of the previous Divinely revealed books as
it is a message from Allah to all of humanity rather than
to a specific set of people such as the Children of Israel,
As discussed, the contents of previously revealed books
such as the Taurat of Moses, Zabur of David and the
Injeel of Jesus (peace be upon them) have been altered
by mankind over the ages, so Allah has superseded these
with the Quran. 'Ihe replacement ot those earlier books
was clearly stated by Prophet Muhammad £
"In place of the Taurat I have been given the seven long Surahs
(chapters ); in place of the Zabur I have been given the Surahs
oj one hundred ayahs (verses)} in place of the Injeel I have
been given the seven repeatedly-recited verses (al-Fatihah),
and in addition I have been given the mufasaal Surahs (i.e.
from chapter Qaf until the end of the Quran)."
Narrated by Tabaraani in al-Kabeer. 1
The greatness of the Quran rests in the fact that it is
Allah's Speech and as such is full of eloquence, beauty
and purity. Moreover, as we shall examine later, it defies
mankind's ability to produce anything similar to it. As the
Qur'an is the greatest of all of the Divinely revealed books
it naturally contains within it, a complete way of life and
guidance for all of humanity. Allah often uses examples
in the Qur'an to convey ideas and concepts to man. The
magnificence of the Qur'an is explained by Allah stating
that if the Qur'an was sent down upon a mountain, the
mountain would be moved or crumble under the sheer
power of such a mighty revelation.
"Had We sent down this Qur'an on a mountain, you
would surely have seen it humbling itself and rent
asunder by the fear of Allah.
Such are the parables which We put forward to
mankind that they may reflect."
Surah al-Hashr (The Gathering) 59: 21.
With regards to the above verse, the 14th century Islamic
scholar Ibn Kathir wrote in his famous commentary 2 on
the Qur'an;
"Allah the Exalted emphasizes the greatness of the Qur'an,
its high status and of being worthy of making hearts
humble and rent asunder upon hearing it, because of
the true promises and sure threats that it contains, 'Had
We sent down this Qur'an on a mountain, you would
surely have seen it humbling itself and rent asunder
by the fear of Allah'."
If this is the case with a mountain which is hard and huge,
that if it was made able to comprehend and understand
this Qur'an, it would feel humble and crumble from rear
of Allah the Exalted, then what about you - O mankind
why do your hearts not feel softness and humbleness
from the fear of Allah, even though you understand Allah's
command and comprehend His Book. This is why Allah
said, 'Such are the parables which We put forward to
mankind that they may reflect."'
Opposite
The start of Surah ash-Shooraa
(The Consultation, 42) from
volume twenty five of a 19th
century Ottoman Qur'an.
The Qur'an is often sub
divided into 30 equal volumes
or juz ' for ease of recitation
and memorisation. The page is
written in naskh script within
a gold coloured rectangular
border. Surah headers have
been written in thuluth script
on gold ground within a blue
frame.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 75
1
mmm
1 ■
Above
A magnificent Quran scroll
written in large thuhtth script
during the early part ot the
20th century measuring 300
cm long by 25 cm wide. The
text is from the verse of the
chair or footstool (Ayatul
Kursi). The word 'Allah' is
written in black within a
separate compartment on
gold ground.
Oppwsite page
Thirteen lines of fine black
muhaqqnq calligraphy with
the first, middle and last lines
written in a larger variant of
thuluth script, from the early
Ottoman period dated to
around the 15/ 16th century.
Each section of tmthaqqaq
text is bordered by exquisitely
designed floral panels on
either side. The text is fully
vocalised with individual
verses separated by floret
shapes. There are no marginal
ornaments to indicate the
number of verses. The image
shows Surah al-Baqarah (The
Heifer, 2) starting with part
of verse 185 to verse 188.
Location: Topkapi Sumy
Museum, Istanbul.
The following verse further emphasizes the point that
Allah makes. If any Divine revelation could move a
mountain, or could make the Earth cleave asunder or
make the dead speak, then it would be the Qur'an; such is
the power and greatness of the revelation of the Qur'an:
"And if there had been a Qur'an with which mountains
could be moved (from their places), or the Earth could
be cloven asunder, or the dead could be made to speak
(it would not have been other than this Quran). But
the decision of all things is certainly with Allah."
Surah ar-Rad (The Thunder) 13: 31.
Reflecting on this verse Ibn Kathir says:
'Allah praises the Qur'an which He has revealed to
Muhammad - and prefers it to all other Divinely revealed
Books before it, And if there had been a Qur'an with
which mountains could be moved.'
Allah says, 'If there were a Book among the previous
Divine Books with which the mountains could be
moved from their places, or the Earth could be cleaved
asunder, or the dead speak in their graves, it would
have been this Qur'an and none else.' Or, this Qur'an
is more worthy to cause all this, because of its marvellous
eloquence that defies the ability of mankind and the jinns,
even if all of them gather their forces together to invent
something like it or even a surah like it."
The greatness, beauty, eloquence and purity of the
Qur'an is such that enormous mountains can be moved
and crumble in submission to Allah, the Creator of all
that exists. Mountains, as we know today, are immense
objects that can extend deep underground serving like
giant pegs to stabilise the Earth's crust. Yet if they can be
humbled before Allah, then how is it that man, who is
relatively insignificant in size and form, can be so proud
and arrogant to reject the message of the Qur'an?
Revelation during Ramadan
The month of Ramadan in the Islamic calendar is
intimately tied to the Qur'an in numerous ways. Most
significant of all is that Allah chose to reveal all of the
previous Divine books that we are aware of during the
month of Ramadan; and the Qur'an is no exception.
Regarding this phenomena Prophet Muhammad H said:
"The Suhuj of Ibraheem (Abraham) were revealed on the
first night of Ramadan, The Taurat was revealed on the
sixth oj Ramadan. Tiie Injeel was revealed on the thirteenth
of Ramadan. Vie Zabur were revealed on the eighteenth of
Ramadan. And the Qur'an was revealed on the twenty-fourth
of Ramadan."
Narrated by Tabaraani in al-Kabeer. 3
76 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 77
An 18th century Ottoman Qur'anic
commentary of Surah al-A'raaf
(The Heights, 7) in scroll torm
decorated with toliate designs.
'Die 'Rismillah' (In the Name of
Allah, The Most Compassionate,
'Ihe Most Merciful) is written
using iliwiini script. Diwuui was
a specialist Ottoman font used
extensively by scribes in the
Ottoman chancery tor official
documents. The main text is written
in rtqa with large lines of thiduth
on the sides. Unusually, the scroll
decoration is seemingly incomplete
as the floral design in the top right
corner has not been coloured in.
Allah's promise to preserve the Qur an
Prophet Muhammad as the final Messenger and
Prophet sent by Allah, taught humanity to believe in
Allah alone as the One True God, to worship Him
Alone, and to enjoin good and forbid evil. As the final
Divine revelation, Allah mentions that the Quran was
sent down in truth in the tallowing verses:
"And We have sent down to you (O Muhammad ' •.) the
Book (this Quran) in truth, confirming the Scripture
(Books) that came before it and trustworthy in
highness and a witness over it (old Scriptures).
So judge among them by what Allah has revealed, and
follow not their vain desires, diverging away from the
truth that has come to you. To each among you, We
have prescribed a law and a clear way.
If Allah had willed, He would have made you one
nation, but that (He) may test you in what He has
given you; so compete in good deeds. The return of
you (all) is to Allah; then He will inform you about
that in which you used to differ.
And so judge (you O Muhammad fSf) among them
by what Allah has revealed and follow not their vain
desires, but beware of them lest they turn you (O
Muhammad §£) far away from some of that which
Allah has sent down to you.
And if they turn away, then kno w that Allah's Will is to
punish them for some sins of theirs. And truly, most
of men are rebellious and disobedient (to Allah)."
Surah al-Maaidah (The Table Spread) 5: 48-49.
To guard this eternal truth from corruption, Allah has
also promised humanity that He (Allah) would protect
and preserve the Quran in its original Divinely revealed
form. The Quran could not be changed as it was to remain
the final message from Allah to humanity until the end of
time.
"Verily, We, it is We Who have revealed the reminder
(i.e. the Quran) and surely We will guard it (from
corruption)."
Surah al-Hijr (The Stoneland) 15: 9.
The Muslims only follow the Quran
A question that often arises is why don't Muslims accept
the previously revealed books that are present nowadays.
In response to this, it is important to stress that Muslims
follow Islamic Monotheism and so are required to
follow only the Quran and the authentic teachings of
Prophet Muhammad As far as the previous books
are concerned, they no longer represent their original
true forms. Muslims believe that they were sent down by
Allah and at one time they were correct, but as discussed
previously, during the course of history they have been
altered by mankind. This is the reason Muslims do not
follow these previous Divinely revealed books. Only the
Quran remains unchanged and protected by Allah.
Additionally, there is no need to follow the previous
books as the Quran has been sent to all of mankind
rather than just a specific nation, so it has abrogated these
books. Hence, the Quran presents a complete way of life
that covers all of the teachings in the previous books and
much more.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 79
The names of the Quran
Opposite
A single volume Qur'an dated
1075 AH ( 1697 CE) hand
written in plain rutskh style
script from Syria showing
the opening verses ot Surah
Qaf (50). The text is written
within a simple red and green
border with surah headers
written in red ink. Three
apostrophe-like markings
in red ink have been used to
indicate the verse endings.
Hie Quranic revelation is of such magnitude that just
one or two epithets alone cannot describe it. We begin
to gain an understanding of its depth of knowledge and
beauty of expression by a variety of descriptive names
that are to be found within the Qur'an itself. For instance,
Noor (light), Huda (guidance), Rahma (mercy), Majeed
(glorious), Mubarak (blessed), Bashir (announcer) and
Nadhir (warner) are some of the words used to describe
the Qur'an. However, the most commonly used names
for the Qur'an are:
1. Qur'an (Recitation)
'Ihe name Qur'an is the most commonly used name and it
is mentioned seventy-three times within the Qur'an itself.
The Arabic word Qur'an is derived from the root Qara'a,
which has various meanings, such as to read and to recite.
Qur'an is a verbal noun and hence means the 'reading* or
'recitation'. The name Qur'an also signifies memorisation;
and history shows that the Qur'an has been preserved
through memorisation and writing. In one verse of the
Qur'an Allah says:
"Verily, We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an in
order that you may understand."
Surah Yusuf ( Joseph) 12: 2.
2. Kitaab (Book)
The Qur'an is also known as the Kitaab. Hie name Kitaab
refers to written text and comes from the root word Katb,
which means to bring pieces (e.g. letters) together. Allah
says:
"This is the Book (the Qur'an), whereof there is no
doubt..."
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 2.
3. Furqaan (Criterion)
The name 'Furqaan' meaning the 'Criterion' is mentioned
four times in the Qur'an. This refers to the fact that the
Qur'an is the criterion between Tawheed (monotheism;
The Oneness of Allah) and shirk (polytheism; associating
partners with Allah), and the criterion between truth and
falsehood as well as good and evil.
The name Furqaan is used for one of the surahs of the
Quran and contains the following description;
"Blessed is He Who sent down the Criterion (of right
and wrong, i.e. this Qur'an) to His slave (Muhammad Zc)
that he may be a warner to the Alamin (mankind and
jinn).
Surah al-Furqaan (The Criterion) 25: 1.
4. Dhikr (Remembrance or Narrative)
The Qur'an is referred to as Dhikr because it acts as a
guidance and remembrance of the purpose of life. The
Qur'an describes the purpose of the entire creation,
the history of previous nations as well as including
descriptions of heaven and hell. Allah Says:
"And this is a blessed Reminder (the Qur'an) which
We have sent down; will you then (dare to) deny it?"
Surah al-Anbiyaa (The Prophets) 21: 50.
5. Tanzeel (Revelation)
The Qur'an is the Tanzeel because it is a revelation sent
down by Allah to Prophet Muhammad i| so that he could
guide humanity. For example, Allah mentions the name
Tanzeel in the following verse:
"And truly, this (the Qur'an) is a Revelation from
the Lord of the worlds (mankind, jinn and all that
exists)"
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 192.
The name Tanzeel (revelation) describes the true emin-
ence and stature of the Qur'an. It is indeed a revelation
from Allah and not just some story or a poem about the
days of old.
80 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Quran is the Speech of Allah
Opposite top
A complete 1 8th century
Ottoman manuscript with
about 300 folios, showing the
by a neat hand in fine black
naskh script with some red
vowel marks. Individual
verses are separated by gold
circles. The pages have a gold
frame border that has eroded
away leaving a green residue.
The colour may be the result
of copper salts within the ink
that have oxidised to form
green copper oxide.
Opposite bottom
A page from a complete
in the 17th century. Arabic
verses are in naskh with
commentary of Surah
Ibraheem (Abraham 14,
verse 24) written in riqa
script. The margins have been
which has caused the paper
to split over time.
of Allah which was revealed to the Blessed
ant to note that Allah's speech is infinite and not
to or by any single language. Allah in fact has
power and ability to speak in any language. For instance,
Allah spoke to Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) in
Hebrew. With regards to the Quran being the Speech of
Allah, Muhammad Abd al-Adheem az Zarqaanee in his
book Manaahil al-Irfaanji Uloom al-Qur'an, gives one of
the most precise definitions of the Quran:
"The Quran is the Arabic Speech (kalaam) of Allah,
which He (Allah) revealed to Muhammad S£ in words
and meaning, and which has been preserved in the written
copies and has reached us by mutawaatir (reported by a
is a challenge to mankind to produce something similar
to it." 4 In the Quran, Allah also says:
"And if all the trees on the earth were pens and the sea
(were ink wherewith to write), with seven seas behind
it to add to its (supply), yet the Words (kalaam) of
Allah would not be exhausted. Verily, Allah is All-
Mighty, All-Wise."
Surah Luqmaan 31: 27.
This verse has also been explained by Ibn Kathir in his
commentary of the Noble Quran in the following way:
even if those oceans were ink for the
the trees were pens, the pens
would bebroken and the water of the sea would nm dry,
outlast them. For no one can comprehend the greatness
of Allah or praise Him as He deserves to be praised,
except the One Who praises Himself. Our Lord is as He
says He is and He is beyond what we can say."
majesty and manner that befits His Greatness. Allah's
known to be the Most Powerful, full of Justice
Wisdom. The Quran as His Speech is mentioned
in the following verses. Allah first outlines some of the
many signs that we see created by Allah in the world, and
then asks, whether people believe in the Speech of Allah
or something else? He also questions which speech other
than His, people will believe in:
"The revelation of the Book (this Quran) is from
Allah, the All -Mighty, the All-Wise. Verily, in the
heavens and the Earth are signs for the believers.
And in your creation, and what He scattered (through
the Earth) of moving (living) creatures are signs for
people who have faith with certainty.
And
Allah sends
and revives therewith the earth after its
in the turning about of the winds (i.e. sometimes
towards the east or north, and sometimes towards the
south or west sometimes bringing glad tidings of rain
and sometimes bringing the torment), are signs for a
people who understand.
These are the ayat (verses) of Allah, which We recite
to you (O Muhammad with truth.
Then in which speech after Allah and His ayat will
Surah al-Jaathiyah (The Kneeling) 45: 2-6.
With regard to these verses, Ibn Kathir comments:
"Allah directs His servants to contemplate His favours
and gifts, as well as His great power that is demonstrated
by His creating the heavens and the Earth and the various
types and categories of creatures in them.
82 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 83
Opposite page
A rare Bosnian Quran from
the 1 8th century written in
fine naskh script on machine
made paper with the pages
open on the last tew surahs.
The Quran has simple red
borders on each page with
surah titles written in red ink.
The night and day alternate, each follows the other in
succession, never ceasing to come, as decreed. One
brings darkness and one brings light. Allah the Exalted
also sends down the rain from the clouds when it is most
needed. He is calling the rain, 'provision', because it is the
resource that produces various provisions, 'and revives
therewith the earth after its death/ after it was dry and
had no vegetation or life of any kind.
Allah said next, 'and in the turning about of the winds/
sometimes towards the south and sometimes towards
the north. Some are easterly winds and some are westerly
winds, some bringing sea breezes and some blow from
the land, some coming at night and some by day. Some
winds bring rain, some cause pollination and some winds
just revive the soul, while some others bear no benefit.
'These are the ayat (verses) of Allah' - in reference to
the Quran with the proofs and evidences that it contains,
'which We recite to you with truth' for they contain the
truth from the Truth (i.e. Allah).
Therefore, if they do not believe in Allah's signs nor abide
by them, what speech after Allah and His signs will they
then believe in?" 5
The Speech of Allah is eternal
Speech is one of the known attributes of Allah that is
revealed in the Quran. Hence, Allah's Speech, like the
rest of Allah's Names and Attributes, does not resemble
anything in creation. All of His Names and Attributes
are eternal and befit the Majesty of Allah and this is also
true of the Speech of Allah. It is unique and perfect in
every way. As Allah's Names and Attributes are unique,
mankind has not been given the mental capacity to
fully comprehend the exact nature of Allah's Names and
Attributes. Allah's magnificent and beautiful Names and
Attributes are mentioned in the following verses:
"And (all) the Most Beautiful Names belong to Allah,
so call on Him by them..."
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights) 7: 180.
"There is nothing like Him, and He is the All- Hearer,
the All-Seer."
Surah ash-Shooraa (The Consultation) 42: 1 1.
84 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 85
1
"...And to Musa (Moses) Allah spoke directly."
Surah an-Nisa (The Women) 4; 164,
"And the Word of your Lord has been fulfilled in truth
and in justice."
Surah al-An'aam (The Cattle) 6: 1 15.
We are also informed in the Quran that Allah's speech is
not created:
"Surely, His is the creation and commandment.
Blessed is Allah, the Lord of the Alamin (mankind,
jinn and all that exists)!"
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights) 7: 54.
The opening pages from
the famous Sultan Baybars'
Qur'an containing the
whole of Surah al-Fatihah
(The Opening, l) superbly
written in gold thuluth script
surrounded by extensive
geometric design work. This
splendid Qur'an currently
held at the British Library
London, is the earliest dated
Qur'an of the Mamluk period
and was written during the
years 1 304 and 1 306 CE.
The text of the opening surah
is spread over two pages, a
practice that became normal
in later Mamluk Qur'ans.
There are decorative
medallions at the centre of
each panel and a hasp in the
centre of the page.
Although we cannot understand the precise nature
of Allah's Names and Attributes, we can understand
their significance. For example, we know that Allah is
alive (Hayy) but we also know that His is not the kind
of existence that we experience ourselves. Our lives are
controlled by Allah, and are terminated through death,
whereas Allah is not restricted or limited by anything.
Allah also has the power to give life to His creation,
but we cannot do the same. Therefore, whilst we can
understand that Allah has a Name or Attribute we cannot
comprehend its reality with regards to Allah.
Similarly, we know Allah speaks in a manner which befits
His Majesty. Allah mentions His Speech in many verses
of the Qur an. For example, Allah says that He spoke
directly to the Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) in the
following verses:
86 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
In this verse of the Quran, Allah distinguishes between
the creation and the command which is the Speech of
Allah. The Speech of Allah causes the creation to come
into being:
"Verily, Our Word (Command) to a thing when We
intend it, is only that We say to it: "Be!" - and it is."
Surah an-Nahl (The Bee) 16: 40.
This verse has been explained by Ibn Kathir as follows:
"...meaning, We (Allah) issue the command once, and
then it happens. Allah does not need to repeat or confirm
whatever He commands, because there is nothing that can
stop Him or oppose Him. He is the One, the Compelling,
the Almighty; whose Power, Might and Dominion have
subjected all things. None has the right to be worshipped
except Him, and there is no Lord other than Him."
We understand from this that it is the Speech of Allah
which causes the creation to come into being. Therefore,
the Speech of Allah cannot be created. In the following
statement Prophet Muhammad 5> told people to seek ref-
uge in the Speech of Allah from all types of evil. Refuge is
sought from the Creator against the creation. If refuge is
sought using the Speech of Allah, then His Speech is not
created. If the Speech of Allah were created it would have
a beginning, but the attributes of Allah do not change and
are eternal.
"Whoever dismounts at any place, and says, 'I seek refuge in
the kalimaat (speech) of Allah from the evil that is created',
nothing will harm him until he moves from his stop."
Reported by Muslim.
A fine example of a small
Ottoman provincial Qur an,
1 8th century. The pages are
open on Surah al-Fatihah
(The Opening, l) and the
first few verses ot Surah
al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2).
Very sparsely decorated with
simple use of red ink and
neatly written in naskh script.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 87
/A
i6{
EM * . .* / - J
A small Ottoman Quran page and its reverse side, 18th century. Hand written in neat naskh script with gold coloured markers acting as verse
separators. Vowels are penned in black ink with limited use of red. There are eleven lines of text to the page set within a line-framed border. The
page on the right starts on part of verse 1 16 of Surah TaaHaa (20) and ends on the left folio, part of the way through verse 127.
88 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Ornate Quran page from the 17th century written in nasta'liq script. The start of Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) is shown. Use of nasta'liq for writing
Qur'ans is very rare, as this tended to be reserved for interlinear translations and marginal commentary. The page is split into a number of panels and
intricately decorated using an array of colours and geometric interwoven designs with blue finials extended into the margin on three sides. Individual
verses are separated by simple floral shapes. The surah title and footer text are written in white thuluth. Location: Topkapi Museum, Istanbul.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 89
Mid 19th century pages from an Ottoman Qur'an written in large naskh script. There are thirteen lines of text per page enclosed within a simple
orange coloured rectangular frame with unusually large orange coloured circles separating the verses. The page on the right starts with part of verse
1 0 of Surah ar-Rahmaan (The Most Gracious, 55) and ends on part of verse 54 on this page.
90 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 91
Surah an-Nahl (The Bee, 16)
from a Qui' 'an beautifully
written in naskh script with
red madda signs and verse
separators, 1 8th century.
Detail view is shown on the
opposite page. The letter ayn
in red ink on the left hand
margin indicates the end
of the first section within
the surah. Note that the
first word (wal-hamcera)
on the left hand page has
been repeated at the bottom
of the opposite page. This
functional placement acts as
an aid to allow continuous
recitation of the Qur'an as
the reader moves from page
to page.
Allah Says in the Qur'an:
"He is the First (nothing is hefore Him) and the Last
(nothing is after Him)..."
Surah al-Hadeed (Iron) 57: 3.
All of Allah's attributes, including His Speech, are a
part of Him, so we cannot say that they were created.
In conclusion, the Speech of Allah is not created but an
integral and eternal part of Him.
Allah's Speech is with sound
Allah speaks with sound that is audible and can be heard.
Prophet Muhammad & said:
"When Allah decrees some order in the heaven, the angels
flutter their wings indicating complete surrender to His saying
which sounds like chains being dragged on rock. And when
the state of fear disappears, they ask each other, "What has
your Lord ordered? Lliey say that He has said that which is
true and just, and He is the Most High, the Most Great,"
Narrated by Abu Huraira, reported by BukharL
Further clear evidence that Allah speaks with sound
is found in the following tradition of the Prophet
Muhammad £S:
"On the Day of Resurrection, Allah will grasp the whole Earth
and fold the heaven with his right hand, and then He will say,
'I am the King, where are the kings of the Earth.'"
Narrated by Ibn Umar, reported by Bukhari.
Again in this saying, Prophet Muhammad ££ tells us
that Allah will speak to the creation on the Day of
Resurrection, such that all of the creation can hear Him.
This tradition of Prophet Muhammad -S is related in even
more detail in the following saying when referring to the
Day of Resurrection.
"... and their Lord will call them with a voice, the one who is
close can hear it just as the one who is far can, and He (Allah)
will say, 'I am the King'... "
Reported by Ahmad & Bukhari in al-Adab al-Mufrad.
The above saying clearly indicates that Allah will call with
His Voice and people will hear the Words of their Lord.
92 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
f
& W fljr /V^/V^ A?
J
Pages from a small Ottoman Quran, 19th century. Lightly decorated using fine gold borders with writing in elegant naskh script. The top and lower
left images show pages open on Surah Maryam (Mary, 19). The lower right image shows part of Surah al-Kahf (The Cave, 18). The start of the
sixteenth section or juz' is indicated by the large marginal device.
94 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Allah's Speech consists of words and letters
The speech of Allah, the Mighty and Majestic, consists
of words and letters. An example of this is the following
verse of the Quran:
"Qui hoowa Allaahu ahad..."
Surah al-Ikhlaas (Sincerity) 112: 1.
This verse in Arabic has four words and each word con-
sists of a number of letters. Translated, this verse means:
"Say (O Muhammad): "He is Allah, (the) One." Prophet
Muhammad 4fe highlighted that the Quran is composed
of letters and words when he stated:
"Whoever recites one word from the Book of Allah will
have ten rewards. And I do not say that AiifLaam Meem is
(counted as) a word, hut rather Alif is a word, and Laam is a
word, and Meem is a word."
Reported by Bukhari.
Allah also mentions a word from Him (Allah) to the
dwellers of Paradise when Allah says:
"(It will be said to them:) Salaam (peace be on you) -
a Word from the Lord (Allah), Most Merciful."
Surah Yaaseen 36: 58.
In another verse Allah mentions that His word became
uppermost over the word of the disbelievers, when Allah
says:
"...the Word of Allah that became the uppermost; and
Allah is All-Mighty, All-Wise."
Surah at-Tawbah (Repentance) 9: 40.
Quran leaves written in
tawqi' script with arabesque
patterns in pure gold ink,
from the 15th century,
late Mamluk period. An
interlinear Persian translation
is written in a smaller
nasta liq script. The acidity
of the ink has resulted in
the text on the reverse side
bleeding through the page.
There is a page missing from
the centre of this section
as the right hand side reads
from Surah al-An'aam (The
Cattle, 6) part of verse 73 to
part of verse 74 and the left
hand page starts from part of
verse 80 to part of 81.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 95
96 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Message of the Quran
As Islam looks at life as a composite whole it is an essential
requirement that life itself be regulated by a code of con-
duct. In basic terms, the Quran represents this code in
the form of a comprehensive 'Book of Divine Guidance';
with its central message concentrating upon the meaning
and purpose of life. As such, the Quran has the ability to
resolve all of the problems that human kind has ever had,
or will ever face. Furthermore, it answers the questions
of life and death that emanates from the human mind
through a variety of methods. The expressive language
of the Quran is unique and contains power and magnifi-
cence combined with fluency, eloquence and purity that
is unrivalled. The main theme running throughout the
Quran is that of Monotheism, i.e. the Unity or Oneness
of the Creator. Allah appeals to mankind's higher intel-
lect and reasoning to comprehend His simple message of
worshipping Allah alone without any partner.
Essentially, the Qur'an is a Book, without which mankind
can never enjoy real peace, progress, material and spiritual
advancement. Moral teachings are presented along with
the realities of creation and the relationship between man
and Creator. Guidance on all affairs, private or public,
individual or collective, spiritual or material, national or
international are given in such a beautiful style that has
the power to bring those who recite and understand it to
tears.
As Islam is a very meticulous faith, Muslims are encour-
aged to lead very self- disciplined and socially responsi-
ble lifestyles. The Qur'an therefore, provides the primary
source for the Shari'ah (Islamic Law). History shows that
Islamic scholars, jurists, judges, theologians, governors
and also scientists have extracted their primary principles
and directives from the Qur'an.
The Qur'an also explains that there is no compulsion in
religion and deals with many aspects of life and death. It
categorically lays down that all human beings are born
innocent, but are accountable for their deeds. Due to this,
Islam encourages righteousness and prohibits immor-
ality and wickedness.
The Quran forbids the root causes of depravity such
as intoxicants, usury adultery and oppression. It also
demarcates between the permissible (halaal) and the
forbidden (haraam). Appropriate dietary guidelines,
instructions on acceptable behavioural patterns and
human, environmental and animal rights are also given.
As mentioned previously, Allah describes the Qur'an in
many different ways. It is the 'light', which enables people
to find their way out of ignorance, a 'healing' for it cures
the ailments of the soul, a 'criterion that distinguishes
right from wrong, and a 'mercy' that guides mankind to
happiness in this life and the next. Furthermore, Muslims
believe that the Qur'an is a miracle revealed to Prophet
Muhammad a miracle that has withstood the test
of time. Ever since the Qur'an was revealed to Prophet
Muhammad it has remained unchanged and beyond
corruption. Hence, there are no abridgements, re-writes
or revisions of the Qur'an.
Moreover, the Quran has lived through the last one
thousand four hundred years pouring out its message to
all people of different abilities and levels. It has done so
without losing even an iota of its perfect freshness and
grace, and its skilful and comprehensible language is very
much alive today in the hearts and minds of over a billion
people.
Thus far, we have examined the need for messages from
Allah by touching upon the previous Divinely revealed
books and we have seen how the Qur'an is the final
revelation that supersedes these earlier books. We have
also mentioned how the Qur'an is the Speech of Allah
and briefly outlined the message that it contains. The
next chapters will discuss the wisdom behind the gradual
revelation and the miraculous nature of the Arabic
language contained within the Qur'an; and why it is
impossible for humans to match it linguistically.
Opposite
A rare example of a simple
Qur'an page in naskh script
from Bulgaria written during
the 1 8th century on thick
paper. The faint vertical
lines running through the
page indicate that the paper
is machine made. The page
starts with verse 54 from
Surah an-Noor (The Light,
24) and ends on verse 58.
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 97
An exceptionally well preserved and neatly scripted 14th century Qur an trom the Middle East with leather binding. Written on quality hand made
paper using naskh script. Red ink has been used for the maddu signs, verse separators and surah titles. The last part of Surah Luqmaan (31) and the
start of Surah as-Sajdah (The Prostration, 32) is shown with a detailed view on the opposite page.
98 THE M AG NIF1CENT QU RAN
Above
Heavily worn incipit pages from a late 17th or early 18th century small Ottoman Quran. There are seven lines of text per page bordered on all
sides by gold filigree strapwork. A conventional feature of this Quran is the tripartite division of the page into central and upper and lower panels.
The page margins are highly decorated with colourful floral designs and tassel-like extensions. The pages show the whole of Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, 1 ) on the right and the beginning of Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) on the left.
Opposite
Detailed view of an unusually decorated page showing the start of Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) from a small Quran written in Palestine, 18th
century. The text is written in naskh script within a cloud-like motif on a plain gold panel surrounded by an arrangement of red and yellow flowers.
There is a strong use of blue in the surrounding framework.
100 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A very large 12th century
Quran from the Pre-Mamluk
late Abbasid period. This
magnificent 800 year old
Qur an consists of 377 pages
and is written in an elegant
archaic inuhaqqaq style of
Arabic script with floral
roundels marking the end
of each verse. The blue and
gold marginal devices with
the word ashara written in
eastern kufic script using gold
ink, indicate the end of every
ten verses. Surah headings are
copied in gold and outlined
in black. The spine has been
renewed at a later date and is
bound in leather.
Approximately one third
of the Qur'an leaves have
substantial repairs typically to
the margins but occasionally
to the text area. Some of
the pages have the marginal
devices cut out In spite of
the damage, the Qur'an has
many well preserved double
pages and is very impressive
by virtue of its size, very
beautiful calligraphy and
illumination. The size and
type of paper used, as well
as the calligraphy and the
illumination indicate that
this Qur'an was most likely
copied for a wealthy person
in the community or an
important mosque. The
pages are open on Surah ash-
Shu'araa (The Poets, 26) and
show the last word of verse
106 to the end of verse 1 Si.
102 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
71 / ^ —
— '»<
tan
Following pages
Close-up low angle view of
further pages from this same
800 year old Quran showing
the start of Surah an-Noor (The
Light, 24).
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 103
Two ornate pages from a
magnificent Mamluk Quran
written in large majestic
muhaqqaq script dated to
the 14th century Egypt. The
main text is written fully
vocalised within a central
compartment of lightly
coloured flowing floral
designs and bordered by a
simple rectangular frame.
Single verse divisions are
marked by simple rosette
shapes. Surah headings are
finely embellished in white
ornamental kufic script
against a blue background.
A large marginal hasp with
an arabesque-like design
dominates the centre of each
folio. The folios are 41 cm
high by 32 cm wide. Surah
al-Falaq (The Daybreak, 113)
is written mi Hie right haiui
page with Surah an-Naas
(Mankind, 1 14) on the left.
106 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 107
The start of the 3rd)wz'
from Surah al-Baqarah
(The Heifer, 2) verse 253,
written in muhaqqaq script
and extensively decorated
throughout in gold. Most
likely from the late Mamluk
period written during the
14th century copied on thick
hand made paper with heavy
staining on the corner of each
page indicating frequent use
over the centuries. There are
just three lines of text per page
surrounded by a floral trellis.
108 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 109
At over 600 years old, this
unique Quran was written
in the Anatolian region prior
to the Ottoman empire.
Each page has seven lines of
imskh script with the first,
middle and last lines copied
in a larger hand, set within
a simply ruled frame. The
word Allah always appears
in red ink throughout this
manuscript. Another feature
of this Quran is the Arabic
commentary and notes on
recitation written in the
margins and between the
lines of the main text is in a
nasta 'liq like script using red
and black ink.
This manuscript is unusual
in many respects, the
additional notes for instance
are sometimes written
horizontally and even upside
down. The material used
is thick hand made paper.
The manuscript is in several
segments and is no longer
bound together in one
volume as the covers have
been lost. The double pages
show verses 60-63 of Surah
an-Naml (The Ants, 27).
The blue text on top of the
right hand page indicates the
twentieth juz'.
110 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Following pages
Close-up view of the same
Anatolian Qur an with the
words amman kalaqa written
in red. The text starts from
verse 60 of Surah an-Naml
(The Ants, 27); "Is not He
(better than your gods)
Who created the heavens
and the earth..."
i • -
^jj in!
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 1 1 1
Further pages from the 1 4th
century Anatolian Quran
featuring; Surah al-Feel
(The Elephant, 105); Surah
Quraysh (106), Surah
al-Maabon (The Small
Kindnesses, 107) and Surah
al-kawthar i A River in
Paradise, 108).
tit'. ' i^fe^^y^
If?-® -Ami* . teLlkT
1
114 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
. l"» - ** ~ . i — '
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 1 1 5
This very interesting Quran page held by Exhibition Islam is nearly 1,000 years old and originates from the Seljuk period of Islamic history
during the time of the Crusades. The manuscript is written on thick linen paper which is typica] of the time as an al ternative to the more
expensive vellum. The page is heavily stained and has undergone repair work around the edges. Scripted in archaic naskh f the page has an
additional unusual feature in that the roundels marking the verse endings contain eastern kufic script. The right hand page starts with part of verse
9 from Surah al-Israa (The Journey by Night, 17) ending on verse 24 on the left hand page; indicated by the eastern kufic roundel.
116 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE FINAL REVELATION FROM ALLAH 117
-i
The Three Stages of Revelation
T 1
L: a
The story of the Quranic revelation begins before crea-
tion itself. It is important to understand the reality that
the Qur'an has always existed before anything was cre-
ated as the Speech of Allah. The Almighty Creator then
chose to reveal the Qur'an to mankind in three stages.
The first stage of revelation
The first stage of revelation was when Allah ordered the
writing of His Direct Speech onto the Book which is with
Allah, known as the 'Preserved Tablet' (al-Lauh al-Mah-
fuz). This 'Preserved Tablet' contains details of every-
thing that will happen until the end of time. Our knowl-
edge of the unseen realms comes from the Qur'an itself
where Allah states that the Qur'an is inscribed in al-Lauh
al-Mahfuz.
"Nay! This is a Glorious Qur'an, (inscribed) in al-
Lauh aLMahfuz (The Preserved Tablet)!"
Surah al-Burooj (The Mansions of the Stars) 85: 21-22.
There is also a tradition of Prophet Muhammad % that
speaks about the 'Pen': "The first thing that Allah created
was the Pen. He (Allah) said to it, 'Write!' It responded, "O
My Lord! And what shall 1 write?' Allah said, 'Write the
destiny of all things until the Day of Judgement"
Reported by Abu Dawood.
Hence, we know that the entire Qur'an, along with
everything else that has happened, is happening, or is
waiting to happen until the Day ofjudgement is written on
this tablet. How the Qur'an is written and precisely when
it was written is knowledge that is with Allah alone.
This provides further proof to mankind that the Qur'an
is authentic and free from corruption. Since Allah has
revealed that the Qur'an was written even before the
creation of the heavens and the Earth into a book that
Allah protects; thereby guaranteeing its authenticity.
The second stage of revelation
The second stage of revelation occurred when Allah
ordered the Qur'an to be revealed to the lower heavens
in a place called al-Bayt al-lzza (The House of Honour).
This revelation took place in the month of Ramadan
during Laylat al-Qadr (The Night of Decree) as follows.
"The month of Ramadan in which was revealed the
Qur'an, a guidance for mankind and clear proofs for
the Guidance and the Criterion (between right and
wrong)."
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 185.
"Verily, We have sent it (this Qur'an) down in the
Night of Al-Qadr (Decree)."
Surah al-Qadr (The Night of Decree) 97: I.
The blessed night is the Night of al-Qadr in the month of
Ramadan. These verses clearly state that the entire Qur an
was sent down by Allah from the 'Preserved Tablet' to
the lower heavens. The second stage of the revelation of
the Qur'an was similar to the revelation of the previous
scriptures, in that the entire revelation was completed in
one single transmission to the House of Honour. The only
difference in this respect was that the previous scriptures
were sent down from the lower heavens to the previous
prophets on Earth in one single act of transmission.
Opposite
Surah an-Nahl (The Bee,
16) from a Qur'an dated to
around the 16th century
from the Middle East, written
in a hybrid variant of naskh
and muliaqqaq script. Very
limited decoration with no
verse numbering, and chapter
headings and verse endings
indicated by a marking
scheme using red ink.
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 119
Decorative incipit page from an
outstanding 14th century Quran
manuscript commissioned by the
Mamluk Sultan, Faraj ibn Barquq.
The page is divided into three
sections in traditional Mamluk
style. The text is written in a refined
rayiiani script in black ink with
monumental angular kufic in white
at the top. Die left hand margin is
dominated by three large ornaments.
The page shows the last few words of
verse 88 to the start of verse 89 from
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights, 7).
Location: British Library, London.
The third stage of revelation
The superiority of the Quran, however, meant that
Prophet Muhammad S§£ had the honour of receiving the
Quran on Earth gradually over a number of years. The
method of revelation usually occurred in one of two ways.
The Quran was either brought down as ordered by Allah
through the Angel Gabriel, or was inspired directly into
the heart and mind of Prophet Muhammad -Sc. Almighty
Allah refers to this distinct mode of revelation in many
verses of the Quran, for example:
"And truly, this (the Quran) is a revelation from the
Lord of the Alatnin (mankind, jinn and all that exists),
which the trustworthy Ruh (Gabriel) has brought
down upon your heart (O Muhammad that you
may be (one) of the warners, in the plain Arabic
language."
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 192-195.
Gradual revelation to Prophet Muhammad
Allah, the All Powerful Creator, says in the Quran:
"Verily, We shall send down to you a weighty Word
(i.e. obligations, laws)."
Surah al-Muzzammil (The One Wrapped in Garments)
73:5.
This verse clearly tells humanity that the revelation of the
Qur an sent down by Allah is a very mighty and powerful
revelation that guides humanity to good and forbids
evil. It provides a complete and perfect legal system that
outlines the rights for all of creation, providing a way of
life as defined by Allah. Hence, a revelation of this magnit-
ude cannot be revealed in one go, it is something that
must be revealed gradually.
This unique mode of revelation occurred over a period
of twenty-three years so that people would learn and
understand what the revelation meant, which would in
turn strengthen their belief.
"And (it is) a Qur'an which We have divided (into
parts), in order that you might recite it to men at
intervals. And We have revealed it by stages."
Surah al-Israa (The Journey by Night) 17: 106.
In another verse Allah says:
"And those who disbelieve say: "Why is not the Quran
revealed to him all at once?" Thus (it is sent down in
parts), that We may strengthen your heart thereby.
And We have revealed it to you gradually, in stages."
Surah al-Furqaan (The Criterion) 25: 32.
Regarding this verse Ibn Kathir comments:
"Allah tells us about the many objections raised by the
disbelievers, their stubbornness, and how they spoke of
things which were none of their concern.
They said: "Why is not the Qur'an revealed to him all at
once", meaning, why was this Qur'an, which was revealed
to him, not sent down all at one time, as the previous
Books, the Taurat, Injeel, Zabur and other Divine books.
Allah answered them, telling them that it was revealed in
stages over twenty-three years, according to events and
circumstances, and whatever rulings were needed in order
to strengthen the hearts of the believers, as He says:
"And (it is) a Qur'an which We have divided (into
parts)..."
Surah al-Israa (The Night Journey) 17: 106.
120 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Both sides from a very rare 10th century Quranic fragment written in kufic script with a red dotting scheme. The lower fragment shows a floral verse separator
painted in gold. The text is from Surah At-Tawbah (The Repentance, 9). Hie top fragment starts from the middle of verse 115 and ends with the second to last
word {shav-in). The text continues on the lower fragment and ends in the middle ot verse 1 16 (wa yumeetu). During the time or Prophet Muhammad £■> and up
to the 10th century, the majority of Quranic manuscripts tended to be written in stylized angular Arabic scripts such as hijazi, mail and kufic. At first the Quran
was usually written without vowel markings. The expansion of Muslim territories led to the addition of vowels and dotting schemes to aid correct pronunciation
as well as the development of more rounded cursive scripts such as those of the classic 'Six Pens'.
122 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Opening pages showing
Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, 1 ) and the start ot
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer,
2) from a Middle Eastern
Quran, late 17th century.
This very small leather hound
manuscript is only lightly
decorated with simple lines
and was most likely used by a
traveller.
Allah says: "that We may strengthen your heart there-
by. And We have revealed it to you gradually, in
stages."
Qatadah said it means: "We have explained it."
Abdur-Rahman ibn Zayd ibn Aslam said it means: "We
have given its interpretation!'
"And no example or similitude do they bring" this
means no arguments or doubts, "but We reveal to you
the truth, and the better explanation thereof"
They do not say anything in an attempt to oppose the
truth, but We respond to them with the truth of that same
matter, more clearly and more eloquently than anything
they say. Abu Abdur-Rahman An-Nasa'i recorded that
Ibn Abbas said, "The Quran was sent down all at once to
the first heaven on Laylatul-Qadr (The Night of Power),
then it was revealed over twenty three years." 1
In order to establish a complete way of life effectively
it was important to reveal the Direct Words of Allah
gradually so that people could learn and cope with
implementing fundamental changes in their lives. Allah
in His Infinite Wisdom and complete Mercy knew that
to send down such a powerful revelation required stages
so that basic fundamentals could be established and
built upon.
Simply sending down so many Divinely revealed laws all
at once was going to be difficult for the majority of people
to accept. Therefore, Allah decreed that the Quran would
be revealed gradually to allow the people to change their
lives over a period of time.
Aishah (may Allah be pleased with her), the wife of
Prophet Muhammad commented:
"Vie first revelations only mentioned Heaven and Hell (the
basics of aqeedah (belief)). Eventually when the people were
firm in their conviction of Islam, Allah revealed the halaal
(permitted) and haraam (prohibited). If the first verse
revealed was, 'Do not drink wine', they would have responded,
"We will never give up wine!' And if the first verse revealed
was, 'Do not fornicate', they would have responded, 'We will
never give up fornication
Reported by Bukhari.
Thus, we see that Allah, the Almighty Creator, knew
that such powerful and detailed laws required a gradual
revelation in order for people to become accustomed
to and accept the Divine message. Hence, Allah gave a
blessing to Prophet Muhammad % and his followers
through the course of time by revealing the Quran
gradually. In the following pages we shall examine some
of the many other benefits that were associated with the
gradual revelation of the Quran.
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 23
A Qur an from North Africa
written in flowing maghribi
script, 18th century.
Maghribi script, named after
the Maghrib region in North
Africa, has its origins in the
Western kujic style. It became
the most widely used script in
North Africa and in Muslim
Spain by the 12th century.
The script is recognised by
its more rounded and deeper
curves that extend below the
line. Another characteristic
feature is that vowel signs are
traditionally penned using a
variety of diff erent colours
to the main text; with red,
blue and saffron being used
most commonly. The pages
show the end of verse 1 22
from Surah at-Tawbah (The
Repentance, 9) to the start of
the Surah Yunus (Jonah, 10).
The benefits of gradual revelation
1. Strengthening Prophet Muhammad's & resolve.
Prophet Muhammad faced many years of persecution
as he delivered the Divine message of Islam within his
community. He was often ridiculed and mocked; had dirty
things thrown at him, called a liar and even beaten. As a
mercy, Allah delivered the Quran and thus the message
of Islam gradually, to steady and strengthen the resolve
of Prophet Muhammad ££, thus enabling him to spread
the message of Islam with determination. This method
ol revelation also helped to strengthen the faith of his
companions so they too could hold firm to the message
of Islam and face the many trials with fortitude.
"Thus (it is sent down in parts), that We may strength-
en your heart thereby."
Surah al-Furqaan (The Criterion) 25: 32.
Over the course of the revelation, Allah constantly
reminded Prophet Muhammad £& of the trials of prev-
ious prophets, so that he too would be comforted and
strengthened by these stories. Allah says in the Quran:
"And all that We relate to you (O Muhammad £r.) of
the news of the Messengers is in order that We may
make strong and firm your heart thereby."
Surah Hud (Prophet Hud) 11: 120.
Allah also told Prophet Muhammad &£t to be patient in
the following verse:
"Therefore be patient (O Muhammad 5t) as did the
Messengers of strong will..."
Surah al-Ahqaaf (The Curved Sand-Hills) 46: 35.
124 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
? J Jtk . k« # I . Jk.1 . . I ■ (ft * I
In other verses Allah promises Prophet Muhammad H
help and victory by saying:
"Allah has decreed: "Verily, it is I and My Messengers
who shall be the victorious." Verily, Allah is All-
Powerful, All-Mighty"
Surah al-Mujaadilah (The Woman who Disputes)
58:21.
2. To simplify memorisation and understanding by the
companions.
The gradual mode of revelation of the Quran was vital in
ensuring its preservation as the Qur'an was much easier
to memorise in this manner. The other great benefit was
that the people around Prophet Muhammad g£ could
understand its meaning and implement the verses of the
Qur'an correctly. They were also able to then go on and
teach the Qur'an to others with relative ease.
i
*
m
m
We know that the previous Divine revelations were al-
ways revealed in a single act of revelation. However, given
the enormity of its revelation, the Qur'an would have
been difficult to understand if it had been revealed all at
once.
3. To prove the truthfulness of Prophet Muhammad
The pagan Arabs and the 'People of the Book' made
attempts to trick Prophet Muhammad s£ by asking
him difficult questions which they assumed he had
no knowledge of. Allah refers to this in the Qur'an by
saying:
"And no example or similitude do they bring (to
oppose or to find fault in you or in this Qur'an), but
We reveal to you the truth (against that similitude or
example), and the better explanation thereof."
Surah alTurqaan (The Criterion) 25: 33.
Two leaves from a 1 5 th
century North African
Qur an written using maghribi
style Arabic script on vellum.
Sparsely decorated and in
fragile conditions, the right
hand page starts with part
of verse 255 (ayatul kursi)
from Surah al-Baqarah (The
Heifer, 2) through to verse
264 on the left.
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 125
An uncle of Prophet Muhammad s:, Ibn Abbas said:
"Whenever the disbelievers brought a new question to
Prophet Muhammad iS: Allah would reveal to them an
answer; through the Quran."
Indeed there are even examples where the pagan Arabs
asked for miracles from Prophet Muhammad
"And even if We had sent down to them angels, and
the dead had spoken to them, and We had gathered
together all things before their very eyes, they would
not have believed, unless Allah willed, but most of
them behave ignorantly "
Surah al-An'aam (The Cattle) 6: 111.
Furthermore, when the companions themselves had
questions and problems, often Allah sent down revelation
containing the answer in the Qur'an, which clearly laid
out the solution to the problem that had been posed.
4. To prove the Divine nature of the Qur'an.
The Qur'an is one of the miracles which Allah gave to
Prophet Muhammad its. and there are many aspects of
its miraculous nature. 3 For instance, Muslims still live
and guide their lives by its teachings. The Qur'an, despite
the great variation in subject matter, retains throughout
a unique consistency of expression. Varying subjects are
intimately interwoven and appear to the reader to be
interconnected, its rich language maintains rhyme and
has a flow to the rhythm and it has revealed many things
which were unknown fourteen hundred years ago.
All of this proves the miraculous and Divine nature of the
revelation of the Qur'an. If it had been composed by a
human being, then over a period of twenty-three years of
revelation, some inconsistency in content, language, style,
flow, rhythm and so on would have been inevitable. Yet,
the Qur'an maintains all of these features in a consistent
manner, even when covering diverse subjects such as the
Divine laws, attributes of the Creator, the Oneness of
Allah, stories of the previous prophets and nations, the
natural world and so on and so forth.
Amazingly, to add to the miraculous and Divine nature of
the Qur'an, the order of the verses in the Qur'an we have
today is not chronological. Prophet Muhammad § would
instruct the companions of the location of any new revela-
tion. The Qur'an was thus carefully assembled from frag-
mented revelations into a perfectly formed and intricate
masterpiece and remains to the present day in exactly the
same order as instructed by the Prophet Muhammad 4£.
Allah says in the Qur'an:
"Do they not then consider the Qur'an carefully? Had
it been from other than Allah, they would surely have
found therein many a contradiction."
Surah an-Nisaa (The Women) 4: 82.
Above
Pages from the sixth juz' of
a North African or possibly
Andalusian 30 volume
Qur an. Handwritten in
small maghribi script using
brown ink on originally white
paper. The above volume was
copied in the ISth century
and due to its compact size
was most likely used during
travelling tor the purposes of
recitation and worship. The
pages are open on Surah an-
Nisaa (The Women, 4), part
of verse 153 to 164 on the
other page.
Opposite
Complete Qur'an dated 1 085
AH (1707 CE) by the scribe.
From the North African
region written in Sudani
script by a jagged hand on
embossed tan coloured paper
and bound with a leather
cover. The page starts with
part of verse 64 from Surah
an-Nisaa (Hie Women, 4).
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 27
Opposite
A Quranic scroll originating
from the Middle East
showing Surah al-Fatihah
(Hie Opening, 1 ), early
20th century. There are
elaborate geometric designs
and extensive use of floral
patterns throughout this
scroll. The manuscript is 7
metres long by 30 cm wide
and is written in thuluth
script. Unusually there is no
'Bismillah' at the start of the
Surah.
Ibn Kathir states in his Quran commentary regarding
this verse:
"Allah commands them to contemplate about the
Quran and forbids them from ignoring its wise meaning
and eloquent words. Allah states that there are no
inconsistencies, contradictions, conflicting statements
or discrepancies in the Quran, because it is a revelation
from the Most-Wise, Worthy of all praise.
Therefore, the Qur an is the truth coming from the true
source, Allah. This is why Allah said in another ayah 'Do
they not then think deeply in the Quran, or are their
hearts locked up (from understanding it)'. Allah then
said, 'Had it been from other than Allah', meaning, had
it been fraudulent and made up, as the ignorant idolaters
and hypocrites assert in their hearts, 'they would surely,
have found therein contradictions', discrepancies and
inconsistencies, (in abundance). However, this Quran is
free of shortcomings, and therefore, it is from Allah."
5. To reveal the laws of Islam in a gradual manner.
The Quran presented the principles and laws of Islam in a
gradual manner. If every instruction had been sent down
instantaneously this would have been too much for the
followers of Islam to understand and implement in their
lives. Thus, Allah in His Mercy revealed these in stages to
allow understanding and implementation of the Divine
revelation.
The early verses that were revealed established the One-
ness of Allah (Tawheed), the Supremacy and Singularity
of Allah alone, the removal of false gods, by telling people
to stay away from the worship of false gods and to wor-
ship Allah alone. The rest of the early verses to be revealed
established the major pillars of faith (eemaan), belief in
resurrection and the Day of Judgement where mankind
will stand before Allah and be judged as to how they lived
their lives.
Madinah that the Quranic verses dealing with fasting
in Ramadan and Zakah (alms giving to the poor etc.)
were decreed to the Muslims. Prior to this, even though
Prophet Muhammad # and his companions fasted and
gave to charity for the sake of Allah, it was only at this
point that it was made compulsory and the minimum
amounts were set by Allah.
The last pillar of Islam, the Hajj (pilgrimage to Makkah)
was made an obligation four years later for all of those
who were able to perform it. The reason for this gradual
revelation of laws and principles of Islam was so that it
did not place a great burden on anyone. The companions
of Prophet Muhammad ife could understand and adopt
these principles and injunctions over a period of time and
alter their lifestyle accordingly, as well as go on to teach
other people.
6, To ease the burden on Prophet Muhammad
The process of revelation and inspiration was a difficult
one for Prophet Muhammad The severity of revelation
coming to Prophet Muhammad ; ". placed gre.it physical
pressure upon him and often during the process of receiv-
ing revelation he would sweat profusely. Had the Quran
been revealed in one go this may have been too difficult
for Prophet Muhammad £s to bear physically.
Al-Harith ibn Hisham asked the Messenger of Allah:
"O Allah's Messenger! How is the Divine Inspiration re-
vealed to you?"
Allah's Messenger replied:
"Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form
of inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes
off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel
comes in the form of a man and talks to me and 1 grasp what-
ever he says."
After twelve years of building faith and establishing the
Oneness of Allah, the principles of worship were slowly
introduced. Initially the early Muslims only had to pray in
the morning and evening, Allah then later increased these
to five times a day. It was two years after the migration to
Aishah added: Verily I saw the Prophet £S being inspired
Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat drop-
ping from his forehead (as the inspiration was over).
Narrated by Aishah, reported by Bukhari.
128 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 129
130 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
4^
Opening pages from an 18th
century African Qur'an most
likely from Ethiopia written
in a local style. The pages
are bordered with triangular
geometric shapes coloured in
a variety of earth tones.
7. To simplify the writing of the Qur'an.
The slow pace of revelation allowed the early Muslims
time to record the Qur'an in written form. Given the
lack of literate people and limited availability of writing
materials in general, if the entire Qur'an had been revea-
led at once it may have been difficult to preserve.
Thus, gradual revelation allowed the purity of the
teachings of Islam to be preserved. It also allowed the
companions of Prophet Muhammad $ to contemplate
upon the meaning of verses and to ask questions as well
as to implement its true meanings. In this way, the first
generation of Muslims were able to gain a complete
understanding of the Qur'an and were then able to teach
other people within the city of Madinah and beyond.
The gradual revelation was also in itself a mechanism to
preserve the Qur'an as it could not only be accurately
recorded and memorised, but also understood. This
provided many educational benefits: it developed the
early Muslims mentally, spiritually and physically with
written material available to guide them in the correct
direction. In turn, the early Muslims taught the succeed-
ing generation in the same gradual manner, thus instilling
them with the same principles.
Why were the earlier Divinely revealed books
revealed instantaneously?
One question that naturally arises is why were the earlier
Divinely revealed books revealed in one go and not
gradually like the Qur'an? The answer to this question
lies in the purpose and situation for which each of the
previous books were sent. The Divinely revealed books
sent prior to the Qur'an were sent for short periods
of time in history and directed to specific nations or
tribes, whereas the Qur'an was sent to all of humanity.
The message of the Qur'an has been sent as the last
Divinely revealed message until the Day of Judgement.
The previous books contained principles which were not
time or situation oriented and thus could be revealed all
at once during the start or at any other point during the
mission of the prophet to whom they were sent. In some
cases, earlier prophets were immediately followed by other
prophets and in some instances two prophets were even
present together.
As each prophet and his Divinely revealed book only
represented a part of the overall message, the progression
took place from prophet to prophet rather than within
the revelation. It is important to bear in mind that the
previous Divine books were revealed in one go, as this is
what Allah had decreed. Allah understood the situation
in which they were being revealed and the purpose be-
hind their revelation.
Prophet Muhammad was the last of the prophets and
was given the last Divinely revealed book, the Qur'an.
This revelation contained the essential message of all the
previous books as well as a complete way of life and set
of Divine laws by which humanity was expected to live.
Therefore, the progression had to take place within the
revelation of the message itself as laws were introduced
gradually for the reasons stated previously. Hence, each
Divinely revealed book was revealed in a manner that
best suited its historical situation at the time.
Opposite page
A small square format Qur'an
from North Africa or possibly
Andalusia written in maghribi
script, 15th century. There
are fifteen lines of text per
page set within a triple line
border. The bright orange
marginal medallion has the
word hizb written in red
ink indicating the halfway
position in the juz'. Vowel
markings are penned in
green, saffron and orange.
The acidity of the ink has
caused some show through
in the margins. The top image
shows Surah as-Saaffaat
(Those Ranged in Ranks,
37) from part of verse 141 to
part of verse 14 of the next
Surah (Saad,38).Thetide
of Surah Saad appears to be
written in a much thicker pen
in orange and bears a limited
resemblance to kufic script.
The lower image is from the
same Qur'an showing Surah
an-Nahl (The Bee, 16) verses
3 1 -54. A pear shape marginal
medallion written with the
word sajdali, to instruct the
reader when to prostate
during recitation, is visible on
the left.
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 3 1
A vellum Qur'an Leaf written
in kufic Script, North Africa
10th Century, The body text
is written in dark brown ink
using an early vowel scheme
with markings in red, blue
and saffron. The page shows
part of Surah ar-Ra'd (The
Thunder, 13) starting from
the second to last word of
verse 19 (ulul-al-baab). It
ends on the third to last word
of verse 25 (wa lahum).
132 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 133
Elegant opening pages
sho wing the whole of Surah
al-Fatihah (The Opening,
1 ) and the start of Surah
al-Baqarah (The Heifer,
2) from an 1 8th century
North African Quran
written in sharp maghhbi
script. The main text is set
within a rectangular frame
with visually intense header
panels each bearing the
title of the surah at the top
with decorative palmettes
extending into the margins.
Note the correction made
by the scribe on the fourth
line of Surah al-Baqarah.
An important point to
bear in mind is the fact
that handwritten Quranic
manuscripts would always
be thoroughly checked for
transcription errors before
they were deemed complete.
134 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 35
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 37
* -44
(
Surah al-Hashr (The Gathering, 59) part of verse 7 to the end of the surah from a Quranic leaf written in North Africa during the mid 17th century.
The leaf contains fourteen lines of text per page set within a triple lined rectangular frame and written in maghribi script in brown ink on cream
coloured paper. The text is fully vocalised and applied using the system developed by Kbalil ibn Ahmad al-Fraheedi (circa 150 AH) with /at/id,
damma and kasra in red and other markings in saffron. Individual verses are marked by small green/grey devices that sit above the line. The page
on the right has one small marginal device that indicates the end of the surah's first section.
138 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
1
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 139
Opening pages from an 18th
century Quran originating in
the African Horn region. The
manuscript is hand written
in a local variant of Sudani
script with traditional African
decoration in earth tones.
Unusually for a Qur'an of
this period the text has only
limited vowe! markings. The
pages are split into a central
compartment containing the
main text within a simple
frame and a header and footer
panel with bolder text written
in a much larger hand.
Note the heavily stained
bottom corners and the
coarse material cover just
visible in the bottom right
corner. The right hand page
contains the whole of Surah
aJ-Fatihah (The Opening, 1 )
with the first few verses of
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer,
2) on the left.
140 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 1 4 1
Surah al-Kahf (The Cave,
18) from a Quran written
in sahrawi script with
limited decoration, 18th
century. This Quran
originates from the
African Horn region and is
bound with coarse leather
material; some animal hair
can be seen in the bottom
left hand corner.
The text written sideways
in red ink at the top of the
page gives information
regarding the surah: it was
revealed in Makkah and
contains 110 verses and 12
rukus. The marginal notes
in red are tajweed rules
giving instructions to the
reader as an aid to correct
recitation.
142 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE THREE STAGES OF REVELATION 143
The Challenge in the Qur an
A literary and linguistic miracle
"Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created.
He has created man from a leech-like clot.
Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous.
Who has taught (the writing) by the pen.
He has taught man that which he knew not."
Surah AI-Alaq (The Clot) 96: 1-5.
These were the first verses of the Qur 'an to be revealed to
Prophet Muhammad over fourteen hundred years ago.
Prophet Muhammad who was known to have been
in retreat and meditation in a cave outside Makkah, had
received the first revelation of a book that would have a
tremendous impact on the world. Not being able to read
or write or known to have composed any piece of poetry
and not having any special rhetorical gifts, Prophet
Muhammad had just received the beginning of a book
that would deal with matters of belief, law, politics, rituals,
spirituality and economics in an entirely new literary
form.
This unique literary form is part of the miraculous nature
of the Quran, that led to the dramatic intellectual revival
of desert Arabs. Thirteen years after the first revelation, it
became the primary reference for a new state in Madinah,
providing the new civilisation's political, philosophical,
and spiritual outlook. In this chapter, we will begin to
examine why the Quran is impossible to imitate by
reviewing how the language of the Qur 'an compares to
the normal literary forms of Arabic poetry and prose.
Understanding the unique literary form of the Quran,
provides an essential insight into its miraculous nature.
Human or Divine authorship?
The unique literary form of the Qur 'an is the basis to
the doctrine of i'jaz al-Qur'an (the inimitability of the
Qur an), which lies at the heart of the Quran's claim to
being of Divine origin. With this in mind there are two
approaches that can show that there are fundamental rea-
sons to believe that the Qur 'an is a Divine and a miracu-
lous text. The first approach is rational deduction and the
second is the philosophy of miracles.
Rational deduction is the thought process where logical
conclusions are drawn from a universally accepted
statement or provable premises. This process is also called
rational inference or logical deduction.
In the context of the Quran's uniqueness, the universally
accepted statement supported by eastern and western
scholarship is:
"The Qur 'an was not matched linguistically by the Arabs
at the time of revelation."
From this statement the following logical conclusions
can be drawn:
1. The Qur an could not have come from an Arab as the
Arab linguistics par excellence failed to challenge the
Quran and had even admitted that the Quran could have
not come from a human being.
2. The Qur 'an could not have come from a non-Arabic
speaker as the language in the Qur 'an is Arabic, and the
language is a prerequisite to successfully challenge the
Quran.
Opposite
Unique manuscript leaf from
an early 18th century African
Qur'an. Written on fine hand-
made paper, in an unusual
hausawi-sudani variant script
with letter-pointing and
full vocalisation in red and
highlighted with saffron
colour. As with most Qur'ans
written in maghribi script, the
writing is dense and compact
with wide page margins. The
floral medallion in the margin
indicates the end of the first
hizb of the eleventh juz'. The
verses are separated by small
floral shapes outlined in red.
The page shows Surah Yunus
(Jonah, 10); part of" verse 23
to verse 27.
A feature of Quranic
manuscripts from this region
is that they were made
portable so they could be
easily carried by nomadic
tribesman. The pages were
generally not sewn together
but left unbound and kept
loose in a satchel or pouch.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 145
Opposite
A loose page from a Quran
written during the 1 8th
century on hand-made
paper, in hausawi script (a
variant of the maghribi style)
that was common to the
Hausa speaking Muslims
of West Africa. Decorated
in a traditional style local to
the region the page contains
a large panel in the centre
as well as roundels on the
right hand margin, coloured
using a variety of earth
tones; saffron, brown and
red inks. Small floral shapes
outlined in red indicate the
end of each verse. The whole
of Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, 1 ) and a few words
of Surah al-Baqarah (The
Heifer, 2) are written on the
page.
3. The Quran could not have come from Prophet
Muhammad & due to the following reasons:
a. Prophet Muhammad 4£ was an Arab himself and all
the Arabs failed to linguistically match the Qur an.
b. The Arab linguists never accused the Prophet
Muhammad S of being the author of the Qur'an.
c. Prophet Muhammad ^fe experienced many trials and
tribulations during the course of his Prophetic mission.
For example his children died, his beloved wife Khadija
(may Allah be well pleased with her) passed away, he was
boycotted, his close companions were tortured and killed,
yet the literary character of the Qur'an remains the same
throughout. Nothing in the Qur'an expresses the turmoil
and emotions of Prophet Muhammad It is a psycho-
logical and physiological impossibility to go through the
events that the Prophet US went through without it affect-
ing a personal composition and yet none of the emotions
are expressed in the literary character of the Qur'an.
d. The verses of the Quran were revealed for specific cir-
cumstances and events that occurred and they remain
without revision or deletion as literary masterpieces. All
literary masterpieces usually undergo revision and dele-
tion to ensure literary perfection, however, the Qur'an
has remained the same since its revelation.
e. The hadith (narrations) of Prophet Muhammad & are in
a totally different style than to that of the Qur'an. How can
any human being express themselves orally over a twenty
three year period in two distinct styles?
4. The Qur'an could not have come from another being
such as a jinn because the knowledge of their existence is
from the Quran. Knowledge of their existence is based
upon revelation and not on any empirical evidence.
Therefore, if someone claims that the source of the Qur'an
to be another being such as jinn, then they would have to
prove their existence independently from the Qur'an.
If the Qur'an were used to establish the existence of jinn
then this would mean the whole rational deduction exer-
cise would not be required in the first place, as the Qur'an
would already have been established as a Divine text be-
cause to believe in jinn would mean belief in the Qur'an
in the first place.
5. This leaves us with the fact that the Qur'an could only
have come from a Divine source, as it is the only logical
source. All other explanations have to be discarded as
they do not explain the uniqueness of the Qur'an in a
comprehensive and coherent manner.
What is a miracle?
The word miracle is derived from the Latin word
'miraculum' meaning "something wonderful". A miracle
is commonly defined as a violation of natural law (lex
naturalis); however this is an incoherent definition. This
incoherence is due to our understanding of natural laws.
As Bilynskyj observes "...so long as natural laws are
conceived of as universal inductive generalisations, the
notion of violation of a natural law is incoherent." 1
Natural laws are inductive generalisations of patterns we
observe in the universe. For clarification; induction, also
known as inductive reasoning or inductive logic, is a type
of reasoning which involves moving from a set of specific
facts to a general conclusion. It can also be seen as a form
of theory-building, in which specific facts are used to cre-
ate a theory that explains relationships between the facts
and allows prediction of future knowledge. Induction
is employed, for example, in using specific propositions
such as: all ice I have ever touched was cold. Hence all ice
is cold. Problems may occur where hasty inductive gen-
eralisations proceed from a premise about a sample to a
conclusion about the population. To give a very simple
example; a quarter of the pupils in a class are left handed.
Therefore, a quarter of the towns population must also be
left handed.
Furthermore, if the definition of a miracle is a violation of
this natural law, in other words a violation of the patterns
we observe in the universe, then an obvious dilemma
occurs. The dilemma is that why can't we take this
perceived violation of the pattern as part of the pattern
itself? Hence, a more coherent description of a miracle
is not a 'violation' but an 'impossibility'. William Lane
Craig rejects the definition of a miracle as a "violation of
a natural law" and replaces it with the coherent definition
of "events which lie outside the productive capacity of
nature" 2 In summary, this means that miracles are acts of
impossibilities concerning causal or logical connections.
146 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 147
148 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Arabic literary forms
Classical scholars such as al-Baqillani and al-Rummani
view the Qur'an as having its own unique literary form. 1
This view is also supported by western scholarship which
can be found in the writings of famous orientalists such
as Arthur}. Arberry, Professor Bruce Lawrence and DJ.
Stewart. 4 Every expression of the Arabic language falls
into the literary forms of prose and poetry. There are oth-
er 'sub' forms that fall into the above categories such as
kahin; a sub-form of rhymed prose. However, all literary
forms can be categorised as either prose or poetry. Ac-
cording to Muslim and Non-Muslim scholarship, how-
ever, the Qur'an cannot be described as any one of these
known forms of Arabic speech.
1 . What is Arabic poetry?
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used
for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or
in lieu of, its apparent meaning. Poetry may be written in-
dependently, as discrete poems or may occur in conjunc-
tion with other arts; as in poetic drama, hymns, lyrics or
prose poetry. Poetry often uses particular forms and con-
ventions to suggest alternative meanings in the words, or
to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as
assonance (repetition of vowel sounds), alliteration (rep-
etition of consonants), onomatopoeia (is a word that imi-
tates or suggests the source of the sound that it describes)
and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or in-
cantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony
and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves
a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, meta-
phor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between
otherwise disparate images.
In Arabic, poetry {ash-shVr ul-arabiya) is a form of met-
rical speech 3 with a rhyme. Hie rhyme (qafiyah) in Ara-
bic poetry is achieved by every line of the poem ending
upon a specific letter. The metrical aspect of Arabic po-
etry is due to its rhythmical pattern (arud). Arabic poetry
has sixteen rhythmical patterns called 'al-bihar', literally
meaning 'The Seas' in Arabic. This term has been used to
describe the rhythmical divisions as a result of the way
the poem moves according to its rhythm, just like the
waves in the sea.
Hie following is a list of the rhythmical patterns, which all
Arabic poetry adheres to, or is loosely based upon; at-taw-
it} al-bassit} al-wafir; al-kamil; ar-rajs; al-khafif; al-hazaj;
al-muttakarib; al-munsarih; al-muktatab; al-mutadarak;
al-madid; al-nmjtath; al-ramel; al-khabab; as-saria.
Each one of the al-bihar has a unique rhythmical pattern.
The al-bihar were first codified in the 8th century by al-
Khalil ibn Ahmad and have changed little since. The
al-bihar are based on the length of syllables. A literary
analysis of any Arabic poem will conclude that it adheres
to, or is based upon, these rhythmical patterns. This is
supported by Louis Cheikho who collected pre-Islamic
and post-Islamic poetry and concluded that all of the
poems conformed and were based upon the ai-bihar. b An
example of Arabic poetry is the ancient Arabian poem
called Abu-l-Ata ofSind':
"Of thee did 1 dream, while spears between us were quiv-
ering and sooth of our blood full drop had drunken the
tawny shafts I know not, by heaven I swear and true is
the word I say this pang is it love sickness or a spell from
thee if it be a spell, then grant me grace of my love-long-
ing if the other the sickness be then none
is the guilt of thine." 7
2. What is Arabic prose?
Prose is the ordinary form of written language and every-
day speech. The word 'prose' is derived from the Latin
prosa, which literally means 'straightforward'. Prose is
therefore, adopted for the discussion of facts, topical
reading, as it is often articulated in free form writing style.
Thus, it may be used for books, newspapers, magazines,
encyclopedias and so on. Prose lacks the formal structure
of meter (the basic rhythmic structure of a verse) which is
typical of poetry; instead it is composed of full sentences,
usually divided into paragraphs and then smaller seg-
ments known as meta-paragraphs. Some works of prose
can contain traces of metrical structure, so a blend of the
two forms of literature is known as a 'prose poem'.
Opposite
A Qur'an from the African
Horn region written in a
compact sahrawi script, I Kth
century. The top image shows
that the binding is heavily
damaged and the opening
surah is missing. The first few
verses of Surah al-Baqarah
(The Heifer, 2) are circled
by a single rough line. The
bottom image shows Surah
al-A'raaf (The Heights, 7),
starting from the 3rd word of
verse 97 and ending on the
second to last word of verse
1 27. The body text is written
in black ink and annotated
with additional commentary
in the margin in dark red.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 149
Close-up view of Surah
al-A'raaf(The Heights, 7)
from the same 18th century
African Horn Quran shown
on page 148.
In Arabic, prose can be described as non-metrical speech;
which means that it does not have a consistent rhythmical
pattern like poetry. Arabic prose can be divided into two
categories; saj' which is rhymed prose and mursal which
is straight prose or 'normal speech.
Saj'
In his book ; Ulum al-Qur'an (An Introduction to the
Sciences of the Quran), Von Denffer, provides the
following description of saj': "A literary form with some
emphasis on rhythm and rhyme, but distinct from poetry.
Saj' is not really as sophisticated as poetry, but has been
employed by Arab poets, and is the best known of the
pre-Islamic Arab prosodies. It is distinct from poetry in its
lack of meter, i.e. it does not have a consistent rhythmical
pattern and it shares with poetry the element of rhyme,
though in many cases somewhat irregularly employed." 8
Although saj' differs from poetry in that it lacks a con-
sistent rhythmical pattern, there is some form of pattern
based upon the accent in each division of saj'. Accent
based rhythmical patterns are based upon stresses rather
than the number of syllables. Additionally saj' is distinct
from poetry and other forms of Arabic speech due to its
concentrated use of rhetorical features. 9 Rhetorical fea-
tures are literary and linguistic devices intended to please
or persuade, that differ from normal speech. Examples
of rhetorical features include sound, rhythm, ellipsis and
grammatical shift (iltifaat). 10
In summary the definition of saj' is that it has a,
i) Accent based (or stress-timed) rhythmical pattern
ii) End rhyme
iii) Concentrated use of rhetorical features
Mursal
Mursal can be defined as a literary form that goes on, but
is continued straight throughout without any divisions,
either of rhyme or of anything else. Mursal is meant as a
way of expression that closely resembles everyday spoken
language. Examples can be seen in speeches and prayers
intended to encourage or motivate the masses.
In summary the definition of mursal is that it has,
i) No rhythmical pattern
ii) No rhyme
iii) A resemblance to straight forward speech
Why is the Quran a Miracle?
What makes the Quran a miracle, is that it is impossible
for a human being to compose something like it, as it lies
outside the productive capacity of the nature of the Arabic
language. The productive capacity of nature, concerning
the Arabic language, is that any grammatically sound
expression of the Arabic language will always fall with-
in the known Arabic literary forms of prose and poetry.
All of the possible combinations of Arabic words, letters
and grammatical rules have been exhausted and yet its
literary form has not been matched linguistically. The
Arabs, who were known to have been Arabic linguists
par excellence, failed to successfully challenge the Quran.
Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot, who was a notable British
Orientalist and translator, states:
"...and that though several attempts have been made
to produce a work equal to it as far as elegant writing is
concerned, none has as yet succeeded." 11
The implication of this is that there is no link between
the Quran and the Arabic language; however this seems
impossible because the Quran is made up of the Arabic
language. On the other hand, every combination of
Arabic words and letters have been used to try and imitate
the Qur'an. Therefore, this leaves only one conclusion; a
Divine explanation is the only coherent explanation for
this impossible Arabic literary form - the Qur'an. Hence,
it logically follows that if the Qur'an is a literary event
that lies outside the productive capacity of the Arabic
language, i.e. an impossibility, then by definition, it is a
miracle.
150 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
152 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
Loose leaves copied in
sahrawi script using a thick
nib from the Horn of Africa,
18th century. The page shows
the start of the third to last
word at the end of Surah al-
Mumtahanah (The Woman
to be examined, 60) and the
last letter of the fourth to
last word {kuffaari min) and
continues into Surah as-Salf
(The Row or the Rank, 61 )
and ends in the middle of the
third to last word of the fifth
verse on the word '!aa yahdil-
QCtWtil.
The challenge in the Quran
In the following verses Allah has challenged the whole
of mankind to try and produce a single chapter like the
Quran. This challenge, which has remained unmet,
captivated the minds of the Arabs at the time of revelat-
ion. They rationally assessed that if an Arab cannot
challenge the Qur'an and nor could a non-Arab ; then
the only source of the Qur'an is the Creator. The Qur'an
states:
"If you are in doubt of what We have revealed to Our
Messenger, then produce one chapter like it, call upon
all your helpers, besides Allah, if you are truthful."
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 23.
"Or do they say: "He (Prophet Muhammad, •:-:) has
forged it (this Quran)?" Nay! They believe not! Let
them then produce a recitation like it (the Qur an) if
they are truthful."
Surah at-Toor (The Mount) 52: 33-34.
According to Quranic commentators such as Ibn Kathir,
Suyuti and Ibn Abbas, these verses issue a challenge to
produce a chapter that imitates the unique literary form of
the Qur'an. 12 The tools needed to meet this challenge are
the finite grammatical rules and the twenty eight letters
that make-up the Arabic alphabet; these are independent
and objective measures available to all. The fact that it has
not been matched since it was revealed does not surprise
scholars familiar with the Arabic language and that of the
Qur'an.
The Qur'an was revealed over 1430 years ago and the
challenge to produce something like the Qur'an has re-
mained to this day. Throughout the centuries, thinkers,
poets, theologians and literary critics have attempted to
challenge the Qur'an. Some of these challengers in the
past have included: Musaylamah; Ibn Al-Mukaffa; Yahya
ibn Al-Hakam al-Ghazal; Sayyid Ali Muhammad; Bassar
ibn Burd.
Without going into an extensive analysis of why Muslim
and non-Muslim scholars have agreed that those who
have attempted to challenge the Qur'an have failed, the
following summary should suffice. Even though the chal-
lengers have had the same set of 'tools', which are the
twenty eight Arabic letters, finite grammatical rules and
the blue print of the challenge - which is the Qur'an it-
self; they have failed to:
1. Replicate the Quran's literary form
2. Match the unique linguistic nature of the Qur'an
3. Select and arrange words like that of the Qur'an
4. Select and arrange similar grammatical particles
5. Match the Quran's superior eloquence and sound
6. Equal the frequency of rhetorical devices
7. Match the level of content and informativeness
8. Equal the Quran's conciseness and flexibility
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 S3
Loose manuscript leaves
from an early 18th century
Quran. Written on hand-
made paper, in hausawi-
sudani style script common
to much of sub-Saharan
Africa. The right hand page
contains Surah Yunus (Jonah,
10) verses 106 to the end
and the start of Surah Hud
(Prophet Hud, 1 1 ) ending
part way through verse 8 on
the left. The folios make use
of traditional orange -red and
yellow colour for the vowels
and verse separators. A large
circular marginal ornament
marks the start of the
thirteenthjuz'.
The following few lines shows a translation of Musay-
lamahs attempt to challenge the Quran by trying to write
something similar to Surah al-Feel (The Elephant, 105).
Another important point to consider here is that the mir-
acle of the Quran is the Arabic language itself. So when
the Quran is translated into another language, although
the general meaning becomes apparent, the actual mira-
cle is lost.
The elephant.
What is the elephant?
And who shall tell you what the elephant is?
He has a ropy tail and a long trunk.
This is a [mere] trifle of our Lord s creations.
It can be clearly seen, with reference to the Arabic origi-
nal, that the style of Musaylamah's speech is in the kahin
style of rhymed prose. It lacks informativeness and the
words and phrases that have been used can be replaced
with other words that will express greater meaning as well
as producing a more eloquent discourse. In stark contrast,
the words of the Quran are such that they cannot be re-
placed by something else.
XUj>>f3&
Hence, from a literary and stylistic point of view, this
attempt failed to replicate the Quran. The totality of
every chapter is a special characteristic of the Quran,
each having its own unique form and its unique use of
literary devices. The Quran's inimitable eloquence is
based upon:
i. Eloquent use of language to please and persuade;
ii. Its perfect choice of words expressions with the best of
verbal forms;
iii. Accuracy of meaning;
iv. Apt selection of pronouns and rhetorical devices;
v. Interrelation between style, structure and meaning.
The list above is not exhaustive and represents just some
of the reasons why it has not been possible to emulate the
Quran to this day.
154 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Quran is impossible to match linguistically
'I he inability to produce anything like the Quran, due
to its unique literary form, is the essence of the Quranic
miracle. The argument posed by Muslim theologians
and philosophers is that if, with the finite set of Arabic
linguistic tools at humanity's disposal, there is no effective
challenge, then providing a naturalistic explanation for
the Quran's uniqueness is incoherent and doesn't explain
its inimitability. This is because a human author is only
able to produce the known literary forms in the Arabic
language. The development of an entirely new literary
form is beyond the scope of the natural capacity of any
human author, hence a Divine entity, Allah, is the only
sufficient comprehensive explanation. The evidence for
this is that for over a millennia, the speech and writings of
the Arabs have always fallen within the known forms and
expressions of the Arabic language. However, the Quran
breaks this natural pattern due to its uniqueness. Taha
Husayn, a prominent Egyptian litterateur, in a public
lecture summarised how the Quran achieves its own
unique form:
"But you know that the Qur an is not prose and that it is not
verse either. It is rather Qur'an, and it cannot he called by any
other name but this. It is not verse, and that is clear; for it does
not bind itself to the bonds of verse. And it is not prose, for it is
bound by bonds peculiar to itself not found elsewhere; some
of the binds are related to the endings of its verses, and some
to that musical sound which is all its own.
It is therefore neither verse nor prose, but it is "a Book whose
verses have been perfected and expounded, from One Who is
Wise, All- Aware." We cannot therefore say it is prose, and its
text itself is not verse. It has been one of a kind, and nothing
like it has ever preceded or followed it." 13
Hence, the Qur'an is truly a unique expression of the
Arabic language. Nothing has come before or after it that
can match its literary form and style. This next section
will discuss how the Qur'an compares to Arabic poetry
and prose.
Pages from an 18th century
African Qur'an, most likely
from Ethiopia, written in a
local style. The pages show
the beginning of Surah Yunus
(Jonah, 10).
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 55
Unbound Quran leaf
written in a hausawi-sudani
variant script, 1 8th century.
Written using a thick pen
with typical use of saffron
colour for the vowel scheme
local to the region. There
is also a traditional African
framework design for the
marginal ornament rather
than the common circular
devices. Hie page starts with
part of verse 183 from Surah
al-Raqarah ( Ihe Heifer, 2).
Is the Qur'an poetry?
The Qur'an cannot be simply described as poetry because
the totality of each surah does not conform to any of the
al-bihar and in many places does not exhibit the same
regular rythmic patterns of the al-bihar. Surah al-Kawthar
(A River in Paradise, 108) is a good example to show how
the Qur'an is not Arabic poetry:
Inna a'tayna kal kawthar
Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar.
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice.
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar
For he who hates you, he will be cut off.
The syllables of these verses do not correspond to any
pattern similar to the al-bihar of Arabic poetry. In fact,
there is no syllabic rhythmical pattern in this surah.
Mohammad Khalifa in Vu Authorship of the Qur'an
concludes, "Readers familiar with Arabic poetry realize
that it has long been distinguished by its wazn, bahr, arud
and qafiyah (i.e. exact measures of syllabic sounds and
rhymes), which have to be strictly adhered to even at the
expense of grammar and a shade of meaning at times. All
of this is categorically different from Quranic literary
style." 14
Is the Quran ordinary prose (mursal)?
As discussed previously Arabic prose can be defined ei-
ther as rhymed (saj') or normal speech (mursal). If we
compare mursal with the Qur'an, we find that the con-
struction of the Qur'an is not just straightforward speech.
This is due to the use of rhyme, rhythm, depth of mean-
ing and unique stylistic features abundant throughout
the Qur'an. Mursal is just normal speech that does not
employ any of the above features. A superficial analysis
on Surah al-Kawthar will conclude that it cannot be de-
scribed as normal speech.
Inna a'tayna kal kawthar
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar
These verses employ an end rhyme as can be seen by
the letters in red. The repetition of the ending 'ka' (you)
is responsible for creating the chapter's rhythm. By
highlighting just this surahs rhyme and rhythm, clearly
shows that the Qur'an is not straightforward speech.
156 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Is the Quran rhymed prose (saj')'?
The Quran has its own unique form so it cannot be
described as the normal rhymed prose that is evident in
other works of Arabic literature. There are three major
opinions based upon modern and classical scholarship
on how the Quran achieves its own unique literary form
of rhymed prose or saj':
1. Unique fusion of metrical and non-metrical speech
The Quran achieves this unique literary form by fusing
together metrical and non-metrical speech. This fusion
of metrical and non-metrical composition is present
throughout the whole of the Quran and cannot be found
in any Arabic text, past or present. 1 ' 1 This is summarised
by the famous Arabic literary scholar Arthur J. Arberry,
"For the Koran is neither prose nor poetry, but a unique
fusion of both." 16
2. The Quran transcends saj'
The Quran shares similar features with saj] specifically
in the early Makkan surahs, but it completely transcends
many aspects of what defines saj'. What makes the Quran
unique in this context is:
a. Greater tendency to mono-rhyme
The Quran differs from saj' due to its use of mono-
rhyme, meaning that its rhyming scheme conforms to
a few rhymes rather than a selection of many rhymes.
According to one analysis, just over half of the Quran
ends with the same letter. 1 This particular use of rhyme,
in a text the size of the Quran, has not been replicated in
any Arabic text. Devin J. Stewart states:
"Quranic saj' has a much greater tendency to mono-rhyme
than does later saj'. A small number of rhymes... are
predominant in the Qitr'an whereas rhyme in later saj' shows
greater variation." 18
b. Does not conform to a particular style
The general description of so/' is that it has an end rhyme.
However, the Qur an does not conform to a constant or
consistent rhyme, which reflects the work of ar-Rummani
19 who states that the Quran's use of language is seman-
tically orientated and does not conform to a particular
style. Semantically orientated means the use of language
is driven by meaning, in other words the message that is
being portrayed, in contrast to the language of the poets
when they used words and phrases primarily for sound
and rhythm rather than any coherent meaning.
This is also reflected by Devin J. Stewart's analysis, he
states, "Vie Quran allows inexact rhymes which are not
found in later saj'" 20
c. Greater range of saj' phrases
The divisions of saj' or single phrases of saj' are called
saj'aat. 1 * The Quran differs from normal saj' as it has a
greater range of short and long saj'aat. Devin J. Stewart
states, "Both in the Qur'an and in later saj' we see that short-
er saj' is much more common, but the range in the Qur'an is
greater." 22
Opposite
A rare Quran leaf from Herat
or Bukhara, late 16th century.
The page is partitioned into
a number of compartments
that has allowed the
calligrapher to display their
skills in terms of symmetry,
layout and design. There are
twelve lines of small variant
naskh script sandwiched
in between larger lines of
muhaqqaq script written in
gold coloured ink. Text and
vocalisation is in black with
a tew textual markers in red.
Verses are separated by round
markers placed above the
line. The illustrations in the
side compartments are for
decorative purposes. The
page shows Surah ar-Room
(The Romans, 30) starting
with part of verse 27 and
ending with verse 48 on the
reverse side.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 59
Opposite
Another classical example of
a brightly illustrated Qur an
leaf from the Herat region,
late 16th century. There are
fifteen lines to the page with
the first, eighth and last line
written in gold muhaqqaq
script with the remaining
lines written in a small black
variant naskli script. The
marginal devices would
appear to be for decorative
purposes only. The page
shows Surah Luqmaan (31 )
starting on part of verse 1 4
through to part of verse 23 at
the bo ttom of the leaf.
d. Higher frequency of rhetorical features
The Quran is a 'sea of rhetoric'. The Quran exhibits an
unparalleled frequency of rhetorical features, surpassing
any other Arabic text, classical or modern. 23 The use of
rhetoric in the Quran stands out from any other type
of discourse. 24 The following examples show that the
Quran employs a wider range and frequency of rhetorical
features than any other rhymed prose; past or present.
i. Alliteration.
This is a literary or rhetorical stylistic device that consists
of repeating the same consonant sound within several
words in close succession. For example repetition of hum
in the following verse:
"He will direct you to do righteous good deeds and
will forgive you your sins.
And whosoever obeys Allah and His Messenger, he
has indeed achieved a great achievement."
Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates) 33: 71.
Another example of alliteration occurs in Surah al-Mur-
salaat when the letter meem is repeated in quick succes-
sion:
"Did We not create you from a despised water?
Surah al-Mursalaat (Those sent forth) 77: 20.
ii. Analogy
This can be a spoken or textual comparison between two
words (or sets of words) to highlight some form of se-
mantic similarity between them. For example:
"And cushions set in rows. And rich carpets spread
out."
Surah al-Ghaashiyah (The Overwhelming) 88: 15-16.
"Therefore, treat not the orphan with oppression.
And repulse not the beggar."
Surah ad-Duhaa (The Forenoon) 93: 9-10.
iii. Antiphrasis
This is a figure of speech that is used to mean the opposite
of its usual sense, especially ironically For example:
"Then pour over his head the torment of boiling wa-
ter. Taste you (this)! Verily, you were (pretending to
be) the mighty, the generous!"
Surah ad-Dukhaan (The Smoke) 44: 48-49.
iv. Antithesis
This is a counter-proposition and denotes a direct con-
trast to the original proposition. For example:
"Those who disbelieve, theirs will be a severe torment;
and those who believe and do righteous good deeds,
theirs will be forgiveness and a great reward."
Surah Faatir (The Originator of Creation) 35: 7.
160 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
>
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 161
v. Asyndeton
This term is used for a stylistic scheme in which conjunc-
tions are deliberately omitted from a series of related
clauses. For example in the following verses the subject
matter switches within the same verse without any link-
age:
"Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any
pillars that you can see.
Then, He rose above the Throne.
He has subjected the sun and the moon, each running
(its course) for a term appointed.
He manages and regulates all affairs; He explains
the Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs,
revelations, etc.) in detail, that you may believe with
certainty in the Meeting with your Lord."
Surah ar-Ra'd (The Thunder) 13: 2,
vi. Assonance
A refrain of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming
within phrases or sentences, For example the words eeyaa
bahum and htsaa bahum in the following two verses:
"Verily, to Us will be their return; Then verily, for Us
will be their reckoning."
Surah al-Ghaashiyah (The Overwhelming) 88: 25-26,
vii. Cadence
Cadence is the rythmic rise or fall of the voice when a
text is read aloud. This powerful feature is one of the
most beautiful attractions of the Quran and is present
throughout. It is a major phonetic and cohesive element
which makes the Quran impossible to imitate. No other
text has done this before, especially in such frequency
and in combination with assonance and the many other
phonetic devices such as assimilation, nasalisation, etc.
viii. Chiasmus
In rhetoric, chiasmus is the figure of speech in which
two or more clauses are related to each other through a
reversal of structures in order to make a larger point, for
example:
"You make the night to enter into the day, and You
make the day to enter into the night,
You bring the living out of the dead and, You bring the
dead out of the living.
And You give wealth and sustenance to whom You
will, without limit."
Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 27.
ix. Epizeuxis
In linguistics, an epizeuxis is the repetition of words in
immediate succession, for vehemence or emphasis. For
example in Surah ash-Sharh we read:
"Verily, along with every hardship is relief, verily,
along with every hardship is relief."
Surah ash-Sharh (The Opening Forth) 94: 5-6.
x. Equivoque
This is the use of a term with more than one meaning or
sense. For example use of the word "mountains' in the fol-
lowing verse:
"See you not that Allah drives the clouds gently, then
joins them together, then makes them into a heap of
layers, and you see the rain comes forth from between
them; and He sends down from the sky hail (like)
mountains, and strikes therewith whom He wills, and
averts it from whom He wills. The vivid flash of its
(clouds) lightning nearly blinds the sight."
Surah an-Noor (The Light) 24: 43.
Close-up view of a page from
a simple Indian Quran, 17th
century. The body text is
enclosed within a framework
of ruled red and black lines.
Verses are written in naskh
script without separation.
The surah header panel in
red ink indicates the start of
Surah Ibraheem (Abraham,
14) and the fact that its
revelation took place in
Makkah and that there are
fifty two verses in the surah.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 163
xi. Homonymy
This is a group of words, that share the same spelling and
the same pronunciation but can have a different meaning.
For example, in the following verse the word makara can
have both good and bad meaning. In the context of the
verse we see the evil plotting and planning of those who
wished to kill Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) as op-
posed to Allah's plan to protect Prophet Jesus (peace be
upon him).
"And they (disbelievers) plotted (to kill Jesus), and
Allah planned too. And Allah is the Best of those who
plan."
Surah aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 54.
xii. Hyperbole
A term for when statements that are deliberately exagger-
ated to underline a point. For example:
"Verily, those who deny Our verses and treat them
with arrogance, for them the gates of heaven will not
be opened, and they will not enter Paradise until the
camel goes through the eye of the needle (which is
impossible).
Thus do We recompense the Mujrimun (criminals,
polytheists, sinners)."
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights) 7: 40.
"When they came upon you from above you and
from below you, and when the eyes grew wild and the
hearts reached to the throats, and you were harbour-
ing doubts about Allah."
Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates) 33: 10.
xiii. Isocolon
A figure of speech in which parallelism is reinforced. For
example:
"Let the rich man spend according to his means; and
the man whose resources are restricted, let him spend
according to what Allah has given him. Allah puts
no burden on any person beyond what He has given
him. Allah will grant after hardship, ease. And many
a town (population) revolted against the Command
of its Lord and His Messengers; and We called it to a
severe account, and We shall punish it with a horrible
torment (in Hell in the Hereafter). So it tasted the evil
result of its affair (disbelief), and the consequence of
its affair (disbelief) was loss (destruction in this life
and an eternal punishment in the Hereafter). Allah
has prepared for them a severe torment. So fear Allah
and keep your duty to Him, O men of understanding,
who have believed! Allah has indeed sent down to you
a Reminder (this Quran)."
Surah at-Talaaq (Hie Divorce) 65: 7-10.
xiv. Metaphor
A metaphor is a term that concisely compares two things,
saying that one is like the other. For example:
"And We shall turn to whatever deeds they (disbeliev-
ers, poly theists, sinners) did, and We shall make such
deeds as scattered floating particles of dust."
Surah al-Furqaan (The Criterion) 25: 23.
"And your Lord has decreed that you worship none
but Him. And that you be dutiful to your parents. If
one of them or both of them attain old age in your
life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at
them but address them in terms of honour. And lower
to them the wing of submission and humility through
mercy, and say: "My Lord! Bestow on them Your Mer-
cy as they did bring me up when I was young."
Surah al-Israa (The Journey by Night) 17: 23-24.
Opposite
A resplendent Quran
page dated to around
the 17th century with
Arabic text written in two
different scripts from the
Indian subcontinent. The
calligrapher has used large
lines of muhaqqaq for the
first, middle and last lines,
with four lines of naskh in
between. Small floral designs
act as verse separators
and coloured marginal
ornaments. The pages show
part of verse 82 of Surah
al-Ghafir (The Forgiver, 40)
through to the end of the
surah half way down the page
where the next surah, al-
Fussilat (Explained in Detail,
4 1 ) starts. Note how the last
few words of Surah al-Ghafir
are integrated within the
header ot Surah al-Fussilat.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 165
xv. Metonymy
xvii. Parenthesis
Detail view of a decorative
Qur an copied in India by
a highly skilled scribe, 18th
century. Tbe page shows the
beginning of Surah al-Israa
(Tbe Journey by Night, 17)
enclosed within a floral chain
border surrounded by other
extensive foliate designs in a
variety of bright colours.
This device is used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept
is not called by its own name, but by the name of some-
thing intimately associated with that thing or concept. So
for example in the following verse when describing the
story of Prophet Noah (peace be upon him), the Arabic
word for ark or ship is not in the verse but is implied by
Allah's mention of planks and nails:
"And We carried him on a (ship) made of planks and
nails"
Surah al-Qamar (The Moon) 54: 13.
xvi. Palindrome
This is a word or phrase that can be read both forwards
and backwards, for example 'race car' or 'radar'. The
Prophet Muhammad was unlettered, so for him to
construct palindromes in the Quran such as these would
have been a very lengthy task of trial and error, especially
when we consider that the Quran was revealed as an
oral transmission and Prophet Muhammad £& would
merely recite the revelation as soon as he had received it
without editing or revising. Allah says in verse 3 of Surah
al-Muddaththir (The One Enveloped, 74):
Is
k_ — — — — — j
Translated into English this verse means;
"And magnify your Lord (Allah) !"
Wa rabbaka fakabbir
The example above of an Arabic palindrome is all the
more remarkable because it maintains the Quran's con-
sistent unique style, and retains a coherent meaning
which is often lost in normal Arabic poetry. When we
take a closer look, we see the verse is composed of a pal-
indrome. The word rabbaka (Lord) written backwards
forms kabbara meaning 'magnify'.
This is an explanatory or qualifying word, clause or sen-
tence inserted into a passage with which it doesn't neces-
sarily have any grammatical connection. For example:
"But those who believed, and worked righteousness -
We tax not any person beyond his scope - such are the
dwellers of Paradise. They will abide therein forever."
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights) 7: 42.
xviii. Polyptoton
This stylistic scheme occurs when words are derived from
the same root and repeated (e.g. 'strong' and 'strength').
In the Qur 'an for example Allah says sdbab-nal maa a' sab-
baa and shaqaqq-nal arda shaqqaa:
"We pour forth water in abundance. And We split the
earth in clefts."
Surah Abasa (He Frowned) 80: 25-26.
xix. Rhetorical questions
This type of question is a figure of speech in the form of
a question posed for its persuasive effect without the ex-
pectation of a reply (for example, Why me?). Rhetorical
questions encourage the listener to think about what the
(often obvious) answer to the question must be. When
a speaker states, "How much longer must our people
endure this injustice?" no formal answer is expected.
Rather, it is a device used by the speaker to assert or deny
something. In the Quran, Allah uses rhetorical questions
in many places, for example:
"Is there any reward for good other than good?"
Surah ar Rahmaan (The Most Gracious) 55: 60.
"Then he turned to their alihah (gods) and said: "Will
you not eat (of the offering before you)?"
Surah as-Saaffaat (Those Ranged in Ranks) 37: 91.
166 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Late 1 6th to early 17th century
Qur'an from Uzbekistan written in
large tiutlnujijth] style script showing
the start of Surah Maryam (Mary,
19). Hie text is fully vocalised in
black and some use of red ink. Surah
headers are decorated in a local
style using floral patterns, with each
header drawn in a different design.
xx. Synecdoche
Tli is is closely related to metonymy and is a figure of
speech that denotes a part of something but is used to re-
fer to the whole thing. For example a pair of hands' refer-
ring to a worker. In the following Quranic verse there are
many different aspects to consider. Firstly, a synecdoche
when the word raqaba meaning 'neck' is used to refer to
the whole ie. a slave. Then the charitable act itself being
likened to a steep path, in other words a difficult course
of action.
The psycholinguistics behind the verse alone opens up
for consideration various aspects of human psychology,
behaviour and comprehension in relation to language.
Lastly, the use of the word raqaba achieves the effect of
maintaining the rhyme created by the previous key word,
'aqaba (the steep path).
& * •
"And what will make you know the path that is steep?
(It is) freeing a neck."
Surah al-Balad (The City) 90: 12-13.
3. Qur'an bound stylistic variations
Stylistic variation is the use of different features of lang-
uage in a myriad of ways. Continuing with the comparison
between the unique literary form of the Qur'an and Arabic
rhymed prose or saj', we find that the Qur'an uses literary
and linguistic devices in such a way that has not been used
before with unparalleled communicative effect.
The use of stylistic variation or stylistic differences,
includes, but is not limited to:
1 . Semantically driven assonance and rhyme
2. Grammatical shifts (iltifaat, in Arabic)
3. Interrelation between sound, structure and meaning
4. Choice of words
5. Unique linguistic genre
6. Word order
To illustrate these points further take the following
two Quranic verses which are structurally identical but
stylistically distinct:
"These are the limits set by God, so do not approach
them" 2S
"These are the limits set by God, so do not transgress
them" 26
The first verb 'approach' occurs in the context of following
a very serious prohibition in the same verse:
"...but do not associate with your wives while you are
in spiritual retreat in the mosques." 27
The second verb 'transgress' of the second verse entails
flexibility signified by the conjunctions in the previous
phrases "either' and 'or':
"A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the
parties should either hold together on equitable
terms, or separate with kindness." 28
In the context of stylistic variation the above example can
provide empirical evidence for the view that the Qur'an
uses words and phrases specifically to provide an accu-
rate and intended meaning.
How are stylistic variations unique to the
Qur'an?
The Qur'an achieves its unique literary form by
transcending the use of language that is common to saj".
S. M. Hajjaji-Jarrah in her article "The Enchantment of
Reading: Sound, Meaning, and Expression in Surat Al-
Adiyat", which discusses how the Qur'an achieves its
uniqueness due to stylistic differences, states: " ... Quranic
'Arabiyya brings forth a dazzling assembly of word meaning
ami sound defying the conventions of both the Arabian saj'
and the literary rules of classical Arabic literature". * 9
The following examples provide linguistic and literary
evidence for the Quran's stylistic distinction.
168 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Two rare Quran leaves from Sultanate India, 15th century. These rare leaves are written in an unknown script that was possibly the precursor
to bihari. The writing style has clear influence from the Middle East and China, and has similar characteristics to bihart, muhaqqaq and naskh.
Traditional bihari script shares some similarities with sini-muhaqqaq scripts of China that were used to transcribe Qur'ans in Muslim parts of
China from the late 15th century onwards, and the proto-bihari script shown above may well be a transitional script. The letters noon and yaa, for
instance have the flat characteristics of muhaqqaq, and the short strokes of the letters meem, waw and kaaf appear to be the prototype for the later
development of bihari script. The pages are from different parts of the Qur'an. The right hand page starts with Surah Saba (Sheba, 34)
and starts from the fifth word from the beginning of verse 14 'maa dallahum'. It ends with the seventh word from the beginning of verse
18 (baaraknaa jeehaa). The left hand page has verses from Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates, 33) starting on the sixth word [mm niiaa-il
mu'minecna) from the beginning of verse 59 and ending with the first word (khaalidecna) of verse 65.
170 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 171
172 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Example 1: Word order, sound and meaning
The following is an example of how the Quran
combines words, sounds, meaning and order to achieve
its communicative goal, the result of which is sublime
rhetoric , unsurpassed eloquence and a unique literary
form. Let us examine the text from verses 3 and 4 of Surah
aal-Imraan (The Family of Imraan, 3):
"...And He sent down the To rah and the Gospel,
Aforetime, as a guidance to mankind. And He sent
down the Criterion..."
^ 4
Working with the English transliteration the verse reads;
"wa-anzala at-tawrata waal-injeela min qablu hudan
lilnnasi wa-anzala al-furqana"
An alternative order of the words is possible:
wa-anzala at-tawrata waal-injeela waal-furqana
min qablu hudan lilnnas
However, when compared to the original this alterna-
tive arrangement has some flaws. Firstly, the alternative
arrangement lacks rhythm, compared to the original
Quranic structure, and it is phonetically inferior. Sec-
ondly, this arrangement has led to a disturbance in the
meaning. This is due to the fact that the second use of the
key word anzala (revealed) has been taken out and the
final word al-furqana (the Criterion), whose position has
a crucial semantic value, has been placed in the middle of
the sentence.
In the original Quranic sentence, the repetition of the
word anzala and the placement of al-furqana are essential
devices employed to enhance the communicative,
psycholinguistic and rhetorical effect. The repetition
of the word anzala is to confirm the revelation of the
Criterion and that it is indeed a Divine scripture while
the placement of the word al-furqana at the end of the
sentence is to confirm that the Criterion is the last and
final scripture. 31 Abd al-Qadir Ahmad Ata refers to
examples like these as 'the chemical composition of the
Quran which indicate the delicate and balanced stylistic
variation in the Quran. 32
Example 2: Grammatical Shift (iltifaat)
Professor Abdel Haleem in his article 'Grammatical Shift
for Rhetorical Purposes: Iltifaat and related features in
the Quran/ 3 highlighted another inimitable feature of
the Qur an, the extensive use of grammatical shifts. This
feature is an effective rhetorical device that enhances the
texts literary expression and achieves the communicative
goal j 34 it is an accepted, well researched part of Arabic
rhetoric. One can find references in the books of balagha
(Arabic Rhetoric) by al-Athir, Suyuti and Zarkashi. 35
These grammatical shifts include changes in person,
change in number, change in addressee, change in tense,
change in case marker, using a noun in place of a pronoun
and many other changes. 36 An example of this complex
rhetorical feature is exhibited in the following verse.
It changes to talking about Allah, in the third person,
to Allah Himself speaking in the first person plural of
majesty:
"There is no good in most of their secret talk, only
in commanding charity, or good, or reconciliation
between people. To anyone who does these things,
seeking to please God, We shall give a rich reward."
Surah an-Nisaa (The Women, 4): 1 14.
Opposite
Thirteen lines of a bihari
script in black and gold,
16th century. The page is
ruled in red and black ink.
Individual verses are marked
in the text with small gold
rosettes pointed in blue. The
word 'Allah' is written in gold
throughout. A large blue and
gold teardrop device in the
margin indicates the end of
section. Hie folium shows
part of verse 42 through to
part of verse 46 from Surah
al-Ankahoot (The Spider,
29).
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 73
Right
A Quran section from the
Persian region, 16th/ 17th
century. The first sixteen
verses of Surah Maryam
(Mary, 19) are shown
written using two different
sizes of hybrid muhaqqaq-
naskh script enclosed within
a simple line border. The
manuscript has had some
patches of repair work
carried out at a more recent
date.
i
Opposite page
Enlarged image of a small
Qur'an volume containing a
number of different surahs,
most likely used during
travel, Indian subcontinent,
19th century. There are nine
lines of naskh script per page
with simple circles marking
the end of each verse. The
main text compartment is
set within a multi-coloured
framed panel. The right hand
page shows part of verse 86
through to the end of Surah
al-Waaqi'ah (The Event, 56).
Surah Mulk (The Dominion,
67) starts at the bottom of
the left hand page.
Surah al-Kawthar provides another good example of the
use of grammatical shift.
"Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar. Therefore
turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice. For he who
hates you, he will he cut off."
Surah al-Kawthar (A River in Paradise) 108: 1-3.
In this surah, there is a change from the first person plu-
ral "We* in the first line to the second person '...your
Lord'. This change is not an abrupt shift; it is calculated
and highlights the intimate relationship between Allah
and Prophet Muhammad The use of 'We' as described
above is used to emphasize the Majesty, Power and the
Ability of Allah, whereas 'Your Lord' is used to indicate
and emphasise intimacy, closeness and love; this is an apt
use as the preceding concepts are about prayer, sacrifice
and worship So to your Lord pray and sacrifice'. Fur-
thermore, the purpose of this chapter is also to console
Prophet Muhammad using intimate language enhanc-
es the psycholinguistic effect. A final shift occurs from the
second person to the third person singular.
These shifts contribute to the dynamic style of the Quran
and are obvious stylistic features and accepted rhetorical
practice. The Qur'an uses this feature in such a way that
conforms to the theme of the text (semantically driven)
while enhancing the impact of the message it conveys.
It is not surprising that Neal Robinson in his book
'Discovering the Qur'an: A Contemporary Approach to a
Veiled Text' concludes that the grammatical shifts used in
the Qur'an, "... are a very effective rhetorical device." 37
Hie Qur'an is the only form of Arabic prose to have used
this rhetorical device in an extensive and complex manner.
Professor Abdel Haleem states, "... if employs this feature
far more extensively and in more variations than does Arabic
poetry. It is, therefore, natural to find... no one seems to quote
references in prose other than from the Qiir'an." 58
Hence, the Qur'an is stylistically distinct from any known
form of Arabic speech. It uses linguistic and literary
devices in such a way that have not been used before.
174 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 75
1 7th century Quran page and its reverse side from Iraq or Persia. There are fourteen lines of text per page written in a very neat black naskh script on
thick paper. Round gold coloured circles act as verse markers and some of the vowel markings have been penned in red ink. The pages are decorated
with a golden trellis of flora] designs in the margins. The page on the right starts partway through verse 7 of Surah an-Nisaa (The Women, 4) ending
on the left hand page on part of verse 15. The single blue and gold roundel in the margin indicates the end of the surah's first section.
176 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Example 3: Qur'anic precision
A further example of Qur'anic precision is found in a
verse that mentions two of the attributes of Allah; al-
Ghafoor (The Forgiving) and ar-Raheem (The Merciful).
In the Quran we find that these two names of Allah are
mentioned together more than seventy times, with the
word al-Ghafoor always preceding ar-Raheem. However,
in Surah Saba verse 2 (see below), we find that ar-Raheem
is mentioned before al-Ghafoor, So the question arises as
to why this might be.
"In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most
Merciful.
All praise and thanks are to Allah, to Whom belongs
all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth. His
is all praise and thanks in the Hereafter, and He is the
All-Wise, the Well- Acquainted (with all things). He
knows that which goes into the earth and that which
comes forth from it, and that which descends from
the heaven and that which ascends to it. And He is the
Most Merciful, the Oft-Forgiving."
Surah Saba (Sheba) 34: 1-2.
If we examine the content and structure of the whole
verse in detail we see that the two attributes of Allah
'Mercy and Forgiveness' alternate as shown in the
representation below. Allah begins verse two with the
word "He knows" which has a direct connection with
why ar-Raheem is mentioned first in this case.
If we carefully analyse this verse Allah says that "He
knows that which goes into the earth..." If we consider
the types of things that go into the earth such as seeds
that are buried in the ground, worms, insects, drops of
rain and the fact that human beings will also go into the
earth when they die. Once in the ground we will need to
rely on the Mercy of Allah. Then Allah says, "and that
which comes forth from it". Vegetation, springs and riv-
ers gushing forth are examples of all the types of things
that come out of the earth. Similarly human beings will
too come out from the earth when they are resurrected
from their graves. At that time we will need to rely on Al-
lah's attribute of al-Ghafoor (forgiveness).
The verse continues and Allah says "and that which
descends from the heaven". Consider for a moment
what comes from the skies such as drops of rain, Divine
commandments in the form of revelations, Allah's graces,
favours and provisions. We see that all of these things are
a mercy from Allah. Rain is a mercy, revelation is a mercy
and provisions are a mercy. The verse then ends with "and
that which ascends to it. And He is the Most Merciful,
the Oft-Forgiving" Our deeds, supplications, and souls
depart this word and all ascend to heaven and what is
required in these instances from Allah is his forgiveness.
Thus, each part of the verse connects with these two
names and the verse has to end on ar-raheemul ghafoor in
contrast to all other occurrences, in order to maintain the
correct sequence.
This verse provides another excellent example of the
precision and balance present throughout the Quran,
coupled with a level of awareness of what is being said
and the implications behind the words that would have
been impossible for Prophet Muhammad to produce
by himself and remain consistent over a period of twenty
three years.
Mercy Mercy Mercy
Forgiveness Forgiveness Forgiveness
Following pages
Exquisite bifolium from
a Quran dated 1743 CE,
Persia. The Qur'anic text
is written in naskh with
interlinear Persian translation
in red naita'liq and additional
commentary in the margins.
The body text is set within
ruled lines enclosed by a
rectangular gold and red
frame. The surah title is
written in red within a gilded
header panel. The page shows
the start of Surah at-Talaaq
(The Divorce, 65 ).
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 77
Example 4: Maintenance of rhythm
Opposite
Intricate opening page from a
1 6th century Persian Quran
written in a fine rayhani script
with the first part oi Surah
al-Fatihah (The Opening,
1 ). The text is enclosed
with a circular panel with a
strapwork frame surrounded
by a red, gold and green lined
panel filled with coloured
flowers on blue ground.
An example of textual precision and maintenance of
rhythm in the Quran is found within the story of Prophet
Moses (Musa, peace be upon him). Prophet Moses is
mentioned together with his brother Prophet Aaron
(Harun, peace be upon him) in numerous places in the
Qur'an. So for example in Surah A'raaf (The Heights),
verses 121 and 122 we read:
"They said: "We believe in the Lord of the Alamin
(mankind, jinn and all that exists). The Lord of Moses
and Aaron."
Note how all of the verses leading up to the mention of
the Prophets Moses and Aaron end with the letter noon.
Usually when we read the story about their meeting with
the Pharaoh and his magicians as in the above verse,
Prophet Moses is always mentioned before Prophet
Aaron. However, there is one exception. In Surah TaaHaa
(20) verse 70 Allah says:
"So, the magicians fell down prostrate. They said: "We
believe in the Lord of Aaron and Moses."
The order of the names is different in this verse so that
the rhythm of the recitation is maintained. The previous
Quranic text shows that the verses preceding verse 70
all end on the letter alif. Hence, ending verse 70 with the
name Musa, helps to maintain this style and rhythm.
Example 5: Singular and plural words
One of the many fascinating aspects of the Qur'an is that
it never ceases to astound those who study it. As each
layer of knowledge is unravelled further levels of under-
standing and comprehension are revealed. The fact that
Allah the Creator has a very fine and subtle knowledge of
human nature in terms of how we think and feel is high-
lighted throughout the Qur'an. For example, whenever
Allah uses the word sama (listen) in the Qur'an it is usu-
ally in its singular rather than the plural form as in Surah
al-Baqarah (Hie Heifer, 2) verse 7 we read;
"Allah has set a seal on their hearts and on their
hearing, (i.e. they are closed from accepting Allah's
Guidance), and on their eyes there is a covering.
Theirs will be a great torment."
Singular Plural
Plural
The highlighted text above shows that although the words
qoloobihim (hearts) and absaarihim (eyes) are in their
plural forms the word sami'him (hearing) is singular. This
is due to the fact that if we listen to speech, our hearts
and minds all react on an individual basis, whereby we
will translate and understand the speech according to our
own personal understanding and comprehension of what
was said. This type of subtlety is lost when the Qur'an is
translated into another language, so the true linguistic
miracle and magnificence of the Qur'an can only be fully
appreciated from the original Arabic.
180 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Example 5 (continued): Singular and plural words
Opposite top
Very simple 1 6th century
Qur'an from India written
in naskh. The beginning
of Surah al-Ahzaab (Hie
Confederates, 33) is shown
on the right hand page. There
are ten lines of text per page
set within a red and black
ruled frame. Verse endings
are indicated by simple circles
above the line.
Opposite bottom
The last part of Surah al-
Mu'minoon (The Believers,
23) and the start of Surah an-
Noor (The Light, 24) from a
complete Qur'an dated to the
mid- 16th century CE, written
using the special script of
Bihar in India (khat-i-Bihar).
Qur anic manuscripts written
with this script are very rare
and there are only a few
remaining in the world as the
Bihari dynasty only lasted for
around 1 00 years. The dark
coloured paper is quite fragile
and is hand made from jute.
There are some bore holes
around the edges of the right
hand page and in the centre
where an insect has eaten
away some of the paper.
Another example of the use of singular and plural words
occurs in Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets, 26). The
following verses reveal how the people of the Prophets
Noah and Lot (peace be upon them) and the people of
Ad, Thamud and al-Aikah all denied the Messengers of
Allah.
"The people of Noah denied the Messengers."
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 105.
"(The people of) Ad denied the Messengers"
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 123.
"(The people of) Thamud denied the Messengers."
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 141.
"The people of Lot denied the Messengers."
Surah ash-Shu'araa (The Poets) 26: 160.
"The dwellers of Al-Aikah denied the Messengers."
Surah ash-Shu'araa ("The Poets) 26: 176.
In all of these verses the apparent meaning is clear that
all of these people denied their Messengers. However
the choice of the plural word al-mursaleen (Messengers)
rather than singular ar-rasool is more appropriate here.
This is due to the fact that even if you deny one of Allah's
Messengers it is as if you have denied them all because
they all came with the same message, namely, Islam. As in
the following verse where Allah saysj
"Verily, those who disbelieve in Allah and His
messengers and wish to make distinction between
Allah and His messengers (by believing in Allah and
disbelieving in His messengers) saying, "We believe
in some but reject others," and wish to adopt a way in
between.
They are in truth disbelievers. And We have prepared
for the disbelievers a humiliating torment.
And those who believe in Allah and His messengers
and make no distinction between any of them
(messengers), We shall give them their rewards; and
Allah is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.*'
Surah an-Nisaa (The Women) 4: 150-152.
182 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 183
184 THE MAGNIFICENT QUEAN
16th century page from a
Persian Qur an written in
naskh alternating with neatly
framed Persian translation in
red nasta'liq. Surah headings
are in red with additional
commentary written in black
and red in the margin. The
page contains Surah al-Insaan
(Man, 76), part of verse 1 1 to
part of 21.
Example 6: Qur'anic imagery and word choice
There are many examples in the Quran of a particular
word being used rather than another word with a similar
meaning that phonetically enhances the description in
the text during its recitation. For instance, Allah says in
Surah al-Hajj (The Pilgr image, 22) verse 3 1 :
"Hunafa* Lillah (i.e. worshipping none but Allah),
not associating partners (in worship) to Him; and
whoever assigns partners to Allah, it is as if he had
fallen from the sky, and the birds had snatched him,
or the wind had thrown him to a far offplace."
Here (hunafa lillah) means, sincerely submitting to Him
alone, shunning falsehood and seeking the truth. Allah
then says "not associating partners unto Him". Then
Allah gives a likeness of the idolator in his misguidance
and being doomed and being far away from true guidance,
and says: whoever assigns partners to Allah, it is as if
he had fallen from the sky, and the birds had snatched
him, or the wind had thrown him to a far off place."
This whole passage conjures up a vivid scene of a person
falling down from the sky from a great height about to
be violently broken into pieces or he may be swept away
by the wind or thrown into a bottomless depth. What is
striking is the rapid and violent movement, with scenes
happening in quick succession and then disappearing
completely.
The interesting point to note here is that the verse ends
with the word saheeq, rather than an alternative word,
baeed. Both of these have a very similar meaning: remote,
distant and faraway. However, the word saheeq is used
because it ends in the letter qaf, which is a 'heavy' letter
in the Arabic alphabet as opposed to the 'lighter' daal at
the end of the word baeed. In this case the verse ends on a
much harder note, which strengthens and underlines the
stark events being portrayed in the verse.
Hie verse represents a very accurate picture and apt
description of one who associates partners with Allah.
He falls from the sublime height of faith to land in utter
destruction. Finishing the verse with the letter qaf shows
the severity of the matter, and that when the person is
thrown to the faraway place the landing is not soft, rather
he is smashed on the ground with a crack. This type of
example highlights further the unique inter-relationship
between the precise choice of Qur'anic words, their
resonance and how this effects the meaning of a particular
verse.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 185
Close-up view of the word
Allah from an 1 8th century
Persian Quran written
in fw.si.7j with interlinear
translation in nasta'liq.
Example 7: The challenge
Surah al-Kawthar is the shortest surah in the Quran
with only three short verses and like all of the other
chapters in the Quran, has an unmatched selection of
words, pronouns, word order and meaning. Moreover,
anyone attempting to take up the challenge of the Quran
only needs to produce something comparable to it. By
briefly analysing this chapter's first verse it provides an
insight into how this matchless and eloquent discourse
is achieved.
i. Emphasis and choice oi pronoun
Verily, We have granted you al-Kawthar.
Inna a'tayna kal kawthar
Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice.
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
For he who hates you, he will be cut off.
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar
The use of the words (Verily, We) at the start of al-
Kawthar is emphatic; also the plural is used to indicate
power, certainty, ability, greater quantity or sometimes
to stress the status and greatness (li-ta'zim al-mutakallim
aw ihiimaman bidhikr rabbika wa ta'ziman). This is an
apt choice of pronoun as its persuasive force can not be
matched by any other pronoun. The effect is "The Creator,
who has power to do anything, has indeed given you ... ."
ii. Word choice
The terma'foyn has been used instead of aataaina because
of a subtle difference. The difference as defined by Ibn
Manzoor in his Lisan al-Arab is that the Quranic choice
indicates 'to hand over with one's own hand' whereas the
non Quranic selection does not provide this meaning.
This choice of word is apt as it strengthens the sentence
emphasizing the surety of giving, ability greatness, power
and intimacy (to console and strengthen Prophet Mu-
hammad Si). The verb has also been used in the past tense
which indicates that it has already happened and makes it
definitive. This further accentuates the meaning of surety,
power and greatness. This also expresses certainty of a
promise; in this case Prophet Muhammad & will have al-
Kawthar, or abundance.
The root stem for the word al-Kawthar are the letters kaj,
tha and ra (kathara). This signifies plentiful, multitude,
overflowing, rich, unstinting and unending. Other
derivations of this root include:
1. katha-ratun: Multitude
2. katheerun: Much, many, numerous
3. ak'tharu: More numerous (emphasis)
4. kath-thara: To multiply
5. takathun Act of multiplying
6. is-thak-thara: To wish for much
Al-Qurtubi states that the Arabs used 'kawthar' to denote
anything which is great in quantity or value. This word
can not be replaced with another, as its meaning can not
be matched equally with any other Arabic word.
Following pages
Detail view of Surah al-
Kawthar (A River in Paradise,
108) from a majestic 16th
century Persian Quran
written in a rayhani script on
thin highly polished paper.
The surah title is enclosed
in a rectangular panel
embellished in white within
a gold foliate panel, stating
the title and the number of
verses.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 1 87
Handwritten mukh
manuscript leaves from a
Sultinate Indian Qur'an
dated 1616 CE. This fine
quality leaf was scribed by
Abdullah al-Khadim and
shows Surah al-Kaht (The
Cave, 1 8 ) from part of verse
94 (top right image) to verse
1 06 on the left image. The
format is typical of Qur anic
manuscripts from a much
earlier period. There are nine
lines of Arabic script per
page with the first, fifth and
ninth lines written in a larger
cursive hand.
5
.-./
5S
iii. Word arrangement
The placement of al-Kawthar is an attribute; plentiful
and abundance. However, this word has been placed at
the end of the verse with no word after to be attributed
to it, as al-Qurtubi points out, this indicates that
Prophet Muhammad 4fe has been given an abundance
of everything. Islamic scholars state that if Allah had
bestowed one thing in great multitude then that would
have been mentioned. How-ever, due to giving Prophet
Muhammad £fc an abundance of everything, nothing is
mentioned to indicate everything or many things. Also,
within the science of eloquence and rhetoric, mentioning
all things would be superfluous and not a good use of
language.
iv. Multiple meaning
The word al-Kawthar has been given multiple meanings
by the scholars. These meanings include:
1 . A river of Paradise from which rivers flow.
2. The fountain on the Day of Judgement from which
Prophet Muhammad & will quench the thirst of his
people.
3. His prophethood.
4. The Qur'an.
5. The way of life called Islam.
6. The multitude of his companions; no other prophet
had as many companions as Prophet Muhammad iSfc.
7. Elevated status. No one is more researched, more
mentioned, more praised and more loved than Prophet
Muhammad
8. It is a multitude of goodness.
1 90 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Just by briefly looking at Surah al-Kawthar's first line it
can been seen that the words, word order and pronoun
have been carefully selected to enhance the meaning.
Any attempt to change the words or word order will
truly cease to sound like the Quran, and the powerful
meaning would be lost. As we have discussed, the Quran
is unique in that it does not follow the normal pattern of
Arabic poetry and prose. The flow of the Quran is not
interrupted by the repeated detail contained in many of
its verses. In fact, part of the beauty of the Quran can be
attributed to its precise detail and accuracy.
Hence, the overview presented here shows how the
Quran transcends all forms of Arabic rhymed prose
(saf). In fact theologians and Arab linguists hold that the
Qur'an does not contain just ordinary saf, and is in fact
unique to all types of saf Their reasoning is that in the
Qur'an, the use of language is semantically orientated and
its literary structure is distinct, whereas in saf, conformity
to style is a primary objective.
No human being has ever composed a book that discusses
such diverse topics in a language with so much rhythm,
beauty and style. Further examples of the Quran's unique
literary form are too many and varied to list and are beyond
the scope of this book, but can be found in a multitude of
other works on this subject.
In conclusion, the Qur'an is a literary and linguistic mira-
cle. It has challenged those who doubt its Divine author-
ship and history has shown that it is indeed a miracle as
there can be no natural explanation to comprehensively
explain its unmatched unique expression. As tangible
signs, Quranic verses are expressive of an inexhaustible
truth. They signify meanings layered within meanings,
light upon light and miracle after miracle. Examples
of other miraculous aspects of the Qur'an, such as the
scientific accuracy where it deals with many natural
phenomena, can be found in "The Islam Guide, pp. 191-
264". 39
A complete handwritten
Qur'an from J 8th century
Afghanistan. Written in
variant naskh on brown paper
using a non-toxic herbal ink.
Certain letters such as viitJ
and noon have elongated
extensions below the line.
The beginning of Surah
al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage, 22)
to part of verse 9 is shown.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 191
Beautifully illustrated 1 6th
century Quran from Persia
or Iraq written in elegant
rayhani script on thin highly
polished paper. Surah
al-Balad (The City, 90) is
written on the right hand
page and Surah ash -Shams
(The Sun, 91 ) on the left. Hie
text on every page is enclosed
within a blue, gold and
orange frame. Surah headers
are with floral designs using
a variety of colours with the
header text written in white.
Verses are separated by
coloured circles drawn above
the line. Alternating blue and
gold ornaments in the margin
indicate the end of every 5th
and 1 Oth verse.
192 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 193
Visually intense opening
pages from a 17th century
Qur an copied in the Indian
subcontinent providing
a striking example of
symmetry, layout and design.
There are four lines of text
per page within a cloud type
motif and very unusually
it contains only the first 6
verses of Surah al-Fatihah
(The Opening, l).The
manuscript is written in
naskh style Arabic script. The
border is heavily illustrated
w ith .1 bed ol floral design
work using a multiple array
of colours that is fully
symmetrical on a central axis.
The text is vocalised with
simple red circles marking
the end of a verse.
194 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Following pages
Detailed view of the opening
page from an elaborately
decorated 19th century
Quran with the whole
of Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, 1 ) written on
polished paper. The text is
typically set within a cloud-
motif upon gold ground
enclosed by a strapwork frame.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 195
The design scheme of these
centre pages from a magnificent
Quran written in Afghanistan,
dated 1269 AH (1891 CE) is
simitar to most Qur'ans from
this region. The text is elegantly
written in a traditional naskh
script within a cloud motif
surrounded by a repeating sea
of coloured flowers. The name
of the calligrapher is inscribed
on the back page as Ghulam
Mali ui din. The surah starting
on the right hand page is Rani
Israeel (The Children of Israel,
I " i . The writing m red ink in
the far margin indicates that this
Surah is in the 1 5th mz of the
Quran.
198 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 199
Two sides from a single Quran
page written in the Caucasus,
most likely Chechnya, 19th
century. The text is written in
a bold naskh style with some
vowel markings in red ink.
Individual verses are separated
by red circles. The folio on the
opposite page starts with Surah
aJ-Mu'minoon (The Believers,
23) and continues over the
page ending on part of verse 27,
The large marginal ornament
indicates the start of the
eighteenth juz'of the Quran.
200 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Following pages
Surah al-Falaq (The
Daybreak, 113) from a 17th
century Qajar Quran written
in Persia. Richly decorated
throughout using precious
gold and other colours and
written in naskh script on
handmade polished paper.
THE CHALLENGE IN THE QURAN 201
Compilation and Preservation
The Qur'an j s the only Divinely revealed religious book
in existence that can claim to have been preserved in its
original form. This very unique phenomenon is support-
ed by a wealth of historical evidence and occurred over
three distinct stages. The first stage was during the
lifetime of Prophet Muhammad &, the second during the
Caliphate of Abu Bakr and the third during the Caliphate
of Uthman ibn Affan (May Allah be pleased with them).
The end result is that the Quran available today is the
same as that during the time of Prophet Muhammad |&,
Moreover, the fact that the Quran itself has been pre-
served in an unrivalled way unlike any other book in his-
tory fulfils the promise of Allah to preserve the Quran
from corruption. In support of this fact we read in the
Qur'an that Allah has taken it upon Himself to guard and
protect it.
"Verily, We have sent down this Remembrance (the
Qur'an) and We are of a surety going to protect it
(from tampering)."
Surah al-Hijr (The Rocky Tract) 15: 9.
Furthermore Allah says:
"And verily, it is an honourable well- fortified
respected Book (because it is Allah s Speech, and He
has protected it from corruption).
Falsehood cannot come to it from before it or behind
it, (it is) sent down by the All-Wise, Worthy of all
praise (Allah)."
Surah Fussilat (They are explained in detail) 41 : 41-42.
Indeed, not only has the actual text been carefully and
faithfully preserved, but the companions of Prophet
Muhammad «fe also preserved background information
and many fine details related to each verse; so that
its precise meaning could be understood. History
shows that the Qur'an was preserved in two ways: l)
memorisation by Prophet Muhammad ££■ and his noble
companions and 2) writing down of the chapters and
verses by the companions as they were revealed to
Prophet Muhammad
Memorisation of the Qur an during the lifetime
of Prophet Muhammad ^
The fact that Prophet Muhammad & could neither read
nor write represents one of the greatest proofs that he did
not write the Qur'an himself, but that it was a revelation
from Allah.
"He it is Who sent among the unlettered ones a
Messenger (Muhammad • :) from among themselves,
reciting to them His verses, purifying them (from
disbelief and polytheism), and teaching them the
Book (this Qur'an) and wisdom. And verily, they had
been before in manifest error.
And He has sent him (Prophet Muhammad &) also
to others among them (Muslims) who have not yet
joined them (but they will come). And He (Allah) is
the All-Mighty, the All-Wise."
Surah al-Jumu'ah (Friday) 62: 2-3.
Opposite
Typically elaborate centre
pages with an array of rich
floral design work from
an Afghan Qur'an dating
back to around 1780. The
calligrapher has used naskh
style Arabic script with an
interlinear Farsi translation in
red nasta'liq script set within
a series of finely ruled text
blocks. The header text is
inscribed in white thuluth on
a gold panel. The beginning
of Surah as-Saaffaat (Those
Ranged in Ranks, 37) is
shown.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 205
The start of Surah Qaf (50)
beautifully hand written
in traditional naskh style
Arabic script from a complete
Indian Quran dating
back to the 17th century.
The manuscript is highly
decorated throughout with
extensive gold and floral
detail. The dark spots seen
on the lower left of the page
are bore marks made by an
insect.
Opposite page
Another page from the same
Qur an as above showing
Surah al-Fatihah (The
Opening, l).
These verses indicate that Allah chose to send a prophet
that could not read or write to deliver His final message to
all of mankind. As Allah says in the following verse:
Say: "O mankind! verily, I am sent to you all as the
Messenger of Allah."
Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights) 7: 158.
Prophet Muhammad's 2& lack of literacy skills was in itself
a great sign from Allah that provided a proof for the Di-
vine Message. This had the affect of assuring people that
he could not add or take away from Allah's message, as
he was only able to recite what was revealed to him. The
people around him would hear the recitation and record
it. The Arab nation at the time was largely illiterate and
possessed little knowledge of reading and writing, relying
heavily instead on the use of memorised poetry. In fact,
it is said that during the early Islamic period, there were
only seventeen literate people in the whole of Makkah.'
From the very beginning of Islam, therefore, the com-
panions of Prophet Muhammad 2S would memorise the
Quran as it was being revealed so they could recite it in
their prayers. Prophet Muhammad 4£ was greatly con-
cerned regarding the preservation of the Quran so he
actively encouraged the recording of the Qur'an through-
out his lifetime; a practice that continues to this very
day, The fact that in the year 626 CE, seventy compan-
ions who had memorised the Qur'an were killed at the
well of Ma'oonah whilst on a teaching mission, provides
clear evidence of the great number of Muslims who had
already memorised most if not all of the Qur'an during
the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad 2£.
206 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
It is also known that Prophet Muhammad £| used to
spend large portions of the night in worship by reciting
the Quran, and Allah provided His Mercy and sent the
following revelation:
"Verily, your Lord knows that you do stand (to pray at
night) a little less than two-thirds of the night, or half
the night, or a third of the night, and also a party of
those with you.
And Allah measures the night and the day. He knows
that you are unable to pray the whole night, so He has
turned to you (in mercy ). So, recite you of the Qur'an
as much as may be easy for you."
Surah al-Muzzammil (The One Wrapped in Garments) 73: 20.
A fine example of a Qur'an
written during the Timurid
period, 1 5th century. The
text is defined within a red
double lined border with
the surah title text written
in red below a decorative
panel. The first portion of
Surah as-Saaffaat (Those
Ranged in Ranks, 37) is
shown.
Prophet Muhammad was also very concerned that he
may forget the verses of the Qur'an that had been reveal-
ed to him. So he would sometimes begin to repeat the
verses revealed to him even before the revelation had
finished. Allah then reassured him that he would not
forget the revelation by telling him:
"Move not your tongue concerning (the Qur'an, O
Muhammad &) to make haste therewith.
It is for Us to collect it and to give you (O Muhammad
£&) the ability to recite it (the Qur'an)."
Surah al-Qiyaamah (The Resurrection) 75: 16-17.
208 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Surah Bani Israeel (The Children of Israel, 17) starts half way down this manuscript written in naskh from India, dated to around 1616 CE by the
calligrapher Abdullah al-Khadim. The format is typical of Quranic manuscripts from a much earlier period. The page is split into a number of
rectangular compartments. There are nine lines of Arabic script per page with the first, fifth and ninth lines written in a larger hand. The side panels
have been left blank, but are often decorated with ornaments. The upper marginal ornament on the left hand side indicates the end of the previous
surah's last ruhu, whereas the lower ornament denotes the start of the fifteenth juz.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 209
r ., W5S? ... .
a*
Frontispiece from an Indian
Qur'an, 1 7th century.
This very small volume is
elaborately decorated with
use of multiple colours
throughout. Written in black
naskh it has undergone
some repair work over the
centuries. The pages show
the whole of Surah al-Fatihah
(The Opening, l) and the
beginning of Surah al-
Baqarah (The Heifer, 2).
Prophet Muhammad would memorise the Qur'an as it
was being revealed, but he would also recite it to others at
every opportunity. For example the first man to embrace
Islam outside of the Prophet Muhammad's life family was
Abu Bakr. Prophet Muhammad j 2£ called him to Islam by
reading verses from the Qur'an. Abu Bakr then brought
some of his friends including Uthman ibn Affan, Abdur-
Rahman ibn Auf, az-Zubair ibn al-Awwan, Talha and Sa'd
ibn Abi Waqqas (may Allah be pleased with them all) to
Prophet Muhammad £| and again he recited verses from
the Qur'an and they all entered into Islam.
Similarly many others such as Abu Ubaidah, Abu Salama,
and Abdullah ibn al-Arqam (may Allah be pleased with
them all) visited Prophet Muhammad 2& to enquire about
Islam and he explained it to them and again recited the
Qur'an and they accepted Islam.
It was also the practice of Prophet Muhammad to
recite the Qur'an to Angel Jibreel every year during the
month of Ramadan. Angel Jibreel would then recite it
back to him. However, in the year 632 CE when Prophet
Muhammad ikfe passed away he recited it twice to Jibreel
and the angel recited it twice back to him. It was during
this last recital, that one of his main scribes, Zayd ibn
Thabit was present. Fatimah (may Allah be pleased with
her), the daughter of the Prophet reported Prophet
Muhammad i& confided in her:
"Jibreel used to recite the whole Qur'an tome every Ramadan,
but this year he recited it to me twice. I do not see (any
explanation for this) except that my time (of death) is near."
(Recorded by Bukhari).
The Writing of the Quran in Makkah
As we have seen there is an abundance of historical
evidence concerning the preservation of the Qur'an
through memorisation by Prophet Muhammad 2& and
his companions in Makkah. It is also an established fact
that at his request the Qur'an was written down during
his lifetime. The practice of writing started very early in
Islamic history. We know for example, that some of the
first Muslims would study the chapters and verses of the
Qur'an in written form. Ibn Abbas (may Allah be pleased
with him), one of Prophet Muhammad's £| closest
companions, stated that verses revealed in Makkah were
recorded in Makkah. 2
Furthermore, Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi as-Sarh is named
as one of the scribes officially engaged in recording the
Qur'an during the Makkan period. 3 Khalid ibn Sa'id ibn
al-As is another official scribe who recorded the Qur an
in the early days of revelation and he stated:
"I was the first to write down 'Bismillah ar-Rahman, ar-
Rahim (in the Name of Allah, Most Compassionate, Most
Merciful)." 4
In another narration, when Ran ibn Malik al-Ansari
attended the gathering at al-Aqaba just prior to the
Muslim migration to Madinah in the year 622 CE,
Prophet Muhammad i& handed him all of the verses that
had been revealed during the previous decade in written
form. These would have been written on various materials
such as stone, parchment, bones and palm leaves.
Following p ages
Beautifully decorated Qur'an
leaf written in black bihari
script with emphasis on
important words such as
Allah' by highlighting in gold.
The text is from Surah az-
Zumar (The Groups, 39);
"In the Name of Allah, the
Most Gracious, the Most
Merciful. The revelation of
this Book (the Qur'an) is
from Allah, the All-Mighty,
the All-Wise."
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 211
— Lift
-it Jte V*rfe* Alii
;
I * * J
Ufck |^Uo Ua
- - — ~ . >■!■ **_ *t IX *"
Two Quran leaves from a
late 15th century Quran
written in bihari script. There
are fifteen lines of text per
page within a red and black
ruled line panel. Diacritical
markings are in black and
the word 'Allah' is picked
out in gold throughout.
Small rosettes denote single
verses. The brightly coloured
marginal ornament made
up of a series of concentric
circles indicates the end of
the second section. The page
on the right has part of verse
14 from Surah Saba (Sheba,
34) through to verse 22 on
the left.
Once back in Madinah, Ran* gathered his tribe together
to read these pages to them. So we see that Prophet
Muhammad &■ not only encouraged the memorisation
of the Qui- 'an, but also the reading of the Quran from a
written source.
In a narration on this subject Prophet Muhammad £fc said,
"A person's recitation without the aid of a mushaf (written copy)
elicits a reward of one thousand degrees, hut his recitation using
a mushaf doubles that reward to two thousand."
(Narrated by Aus ath-Thaqafi narrated, recorded by at-
Tabari and al-Baihaqi)
One of the most famous examples of the Quran having
been written down in the early stages of Islam in Makkah,
is during the sixth year of Prophethood when Umar
ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) read a
parchment containing the first few verses of Surah TaaHaa
and accepted Islam.
Umar ibn al-Khattab had heard the Prophet reciting
the Quran at the Sanctuary in Makkah; the Prophet
was reciting Surah al-Haaqqah (69) and Umar narrated:
"Then Islam came into my heart."
The recitation had a profound impact on him, as if he had
been awoken suddenly from a deep stupor. However, at
this point Umar did not become a Muslim. Conflicting
emotions between accepting Islam and conforming to
the ways of his ancestors held Umar back from becoming
Muslim. Sometime later Umar's emotions got the better
of him and he set off with the intention of killing Prophet
Muhammad Hl
However, he would have an encounter along the way that
would transform his life forever and see him eventually
become one of Islam's greatest personalities, greatly
respected to the present day. On his way he met a man
who informed him that his sister and her husband had
become Muslim. Umar was furious and stormed to his
214 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Enlarged image of a bihari leajfram a late 15th century Quran written in India showing Surah al-Ahzaab (The Confederates, 33); part of verse 52
to part of verse 53. The marginal device marks the end of the surah's sixth section.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 215
Above left
A small leaf from a Qur'an
written in India with simple
floral decoration in the
margin. The page starts with
part of verse 48 from Surah
az-Zumar (The Croups, 39)
to verse 56.
Above right
A Qur'an page from Banda,
dated to around 1 790 CE,
on paper. There are ten lines
of strong black naskh script
within a gold border. The
tenth verse is indicated by the
word ushara written in the
margin. The page contains
Surah al-Anfaal (The Spoils
of War, 8), part of verse 19 to
part of verse 24.
sister's house. As he drew nearer, he heard the voice of
Khabbab ibn Aratt, who was reciting Surah TaaHaa
(20) to both of them from some written pages. Khabbab
perceiving the noise of his footsteps went further into the
house, and Fatimah, Umar's sister, took hold of the page
and hid it. But Umar had already heard the voice. "What
sound was that I heard just now?" He said, entering
angrily. Both his sister and her husband replied, "You
heard nothing." "Nay," he said swearing fiercely, "I have
heard that you have turned away from your religion."
He moved forward towards his brother-in-law and beat
him severely, but Fatimah rushed to the rescue of her
husband. Thereupon, Umar fell upon his sister in rage and
struck her on the head. The husband and wife could not
contain themselves and cried aloud: "Yes we are Muslims,
we believe in Allah and His Messenger Muhammad so
do what you will." When Umar saw the face of his dear
sister smeared with blood, he felt pity and said: "Let me
see what you were reading, so that I may perceive what
Muhammad has brought."
Fatimah was satisfied with the assurance, but said: "O
brother, you are unclean on the account of your idolatry,
none but the pure may touch it. So go and wash first." He
did so, and took the page and read the opening verses of
the Surah TaaHaa from the Qur'an until he reached:
"Verily, I am Allah! None has the right to be
worshipped but I, so worship Me, and perform As-
Salat (the prayers) for My remembrance."
Surah TaaHaa 20: 14.
216 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Late 1 8th to early 1 9th century Quran from the Indian subcontinent elegantly written in naskh. Very lightly decorated with a simple multi-coloured border.
The double pages start half way through verse 23 of Surah Hud (Prophet Hud, 1 1 ) on the right and ends with the second last word of verse 37.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 217
Beautifully scripted naskh leaf from a Qur'an handwritten in Kashmir during the 19th century on gold sprinkled paper. The page is enclosed by a
frame border with fourteen lines of text per page with each line set within a cloud motif that is typical of Quranic manuscripts from this region.
Coloured florets act as verse separators. The page starts with the last three words of verse 129 from Surah al-An'aam (The Cattle, 6) and ends part
way through verse 136.
218 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
b^6
CP
CM
- _ m ^"n t .... ■ . ^ ^ j
^c^i- J^'Ju ! ^-rJ
mm
Umar read the verses with great interest and was highly-
fascinated by them. "How excellent it is, and how graceful !
Please guide me to Muhammad ," he said. 6
There are also many other examples of the Quran being
taught in Makkah and beyond by the companions of
Prophet Muhammad The companions were very
devout believers in the message of Islam and were keen to
see Islam spread. As the Muslims faced severe persecution
there was a great sense of unity and purpose amongst the
early Muslims and they helped each other immensely.
These early bonds also extended to the teaching of the
Qur'an, and many ot the companions after learning the
Quran from Prophet Muhammad g£ helped others to
learn the Quran by providing extra tuition. Ibn Mas'ud
was one of the first Muslims to teach the Noble Qur'an in
Makkah.
Khabbab, as we have already discussed, taught the Qur'an
to Fatimah (Umar ibn al-Khattab's sister) and her husband
Sa'id ibn Zayd. The early Muslims also went on to teach
the verses of the Qur'an to many tribes outside of Mak-
kah. Companions such as Mus'ab ibn Umayr helped to
teach the Qur'an to the people of Madinah, even prior to
the migration of Prophet Muhammad £fe to that city. Zayd
ibn Thabit, who would later become one of the scribes
of Prophet Muhammad when he was presented to
the Prophet i£ upon his arrival in Madinah, had already
memorised sixteen chapters of the Qur'an by the age of
eleven. Similarly, Bara stated that he was familiar with the
Qur'an from Surah Qaf, even before Prophet Muhammad
'$$ arrived in Madinah. Furthermore, Al-Waqidi stated
that the Masjid of Bani Zuraiq was the first mosque to be
honoured by the recitation of the Qur'an. 7
Double pages from a 17th
century Qur'an copied in
the Indian subcontinent in
black naskh script with vowel
markings and surah titles
in red ink. The pages have
a simple border frame with
additional commentary in
the margins. The pages show
Surah al-Balad (The City, 90)
to the start of Surah al-Aku]
(The Clot, 96).
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 219
Two sides from a rare Quran
leaf from an 1 8th century
Qur an written using sini
(Chinese) Arabic script
from Beijing, China. Simply
decorated using light floral
patterns and a double lined
border. The right hand leaf
shows Surah Hud (Prophet
Hud, 1 1 ) part of verse 3 1
through to part of verse 35
on the other page. The script
is a variation of muhaqqaq
with some influence from
Chinese calligraphy. The long
strokes under the line are
characteristic of this style.
The evidence shows that the faithful preservation of the
Quran, both in written form and memorisation, from its
first revelation in Makkah is a well documented fact. The
Quran was being committed to memory by many com-
panions of Prophet Muhammad £fe as it was revealed. As
well as memorising the Quran it was also being written
down from the very start of its revelation for the purpos-
es of personal study and teaching others, even during the
persecution that the Muslims suffered in Makkah in the
early days of Islam.
Furthermore, not only did the companions record the
entire Quran, they were also in the habit of recording
in minute detail the place of revelation, the reason and
meaning behind each revelation, even down to the detail
of the first person to write 'Bismillah ar-Rahman, w-
Rahim'.
Teaching and memorisation in Madinah
When Prophet Muhammad 5£ arrived in Madinah in the
year 622 CE, life changed completely for the Muslims.
In Makkah, the Muslims had been under constant
persecution by the pagan Makkans, but now in Madinah
all the affairs of life rested in their hands. They were free
to build a just society based upon the teachings of the
Qur an. One of the first tasks that Prophet Muhammad
£e£ sought to undertake was the construction of a mosque
that would act not only as a house of worship but as a
sanctuary for the poor and a centre of education.
Prophet Muhammad continued his practice of
encouraging teaching and memorisation of the Quran
by placing a strong emphasis on education. He set up a
school to provide food and shelter to students who would
learn literacy.
220 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Up to nine hundred people took up this offer of educa-
tion. Prophet Muhammad himself would teach the
Qur'an whilst companions such as Abdullah ibn Sa'id ibn
al-As, Ubaadah ibn as-Saamit and others taught reading
and writing in general
Ubaadah ibn as-Saamit reported: "Whenever a person
migrated to Madinah, Prophet Muhammad ^ would
assign him to one of us so that we could teach him the
Qur'an. Eventually the masjid became so noisy because
of all the recitation of the Qur'an that the Prophet 41 or-
dered us to lower our voices so as not to distort the mean-
ing (by mixing all of these verses)." 8
On the same topic of teaching Anas ibn Malik comment-
ed: "The Prophet || came to us while we were reciting,
among us Arabs and non-Arabs, blacks and whites ..." 9
Similarly, Abdullah ibn Mughaftal al-Muzani narrates:
"When someone of Arab stock migrated to Madinah,
Prophet Muhammad would assign someone from the
Ansar to that individual saying: 'let him understand Islam
and teach him the Qur'an,
"The same was true with me," he continued, "as I was
entrusted to one of the Ansar who made me understand
the religion and taught me the Qur'an." 10
There are numerous other reports from the companions
stating that Prophet Muhammad & recited such and
such chapter to them personally, including renowned
personalities like Ubayy ibn Ka'b, Abdullah ibn Salam,
Hisham ibn Hakim, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Ibn
Mas'ud. 11
1 8th century South East
Asian Quran neatly written
in simple black and red
naskh/ jawi script. Unusually
this manuscript is covered
in a traditional cloth rather
than leather. The pages
show Surah an-Nasr (The
Help, 1 10) to Surah an-Naas
(Mankind, 1 14).
Following p ages
A page from a 30 volume
Chinese Qur'an written in
sini script, late 1 7th century,
showing part of verse 37 to
38 from Surah Fussilat (They
are explained in detail, 41).
The green and red lantern
shaped ornament with the
word sajdah indicates that
there is a prostration.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 22 1
A Quran from the Far East
written during the 1 9th
century in jawi script. The
red and black marginal device
in the page margin has been
decorated in a local style and
indicates the end of Surah
ar-Ra'd (The Thunder, 13)
and the start of start of Surah
Ibraheem (Abraham, 14).
The verses are separated by
gold coloured circles that sit
above the line.
The first compilation of the Quran
As a result of all of Prophet Muhammad's e£ tireless work
and devotion to his mission, by the time he passed away
in the year 632 CE, the entire Quran had been com-
pletely written down as well as memorised by many of
his companions, all directly from the Prophet himself.
Many of the Muslims had not only memorised the com-
plete Quran but had also substantial written copies of
their own. Hence, the information contained within the
Divine revelation was protected and clearly available; if
any companion needed clarification he could simply ask
another companion as numerous copies of chapters and
verses of the Quran were available in written form. In ad-
dition, many of the companions who had memorised the
Quran were present and they could relate the Quran eas-
ily and eloquently
It is also important to note that Prophet Muhammad Sfe
did not compile the Quran into a single reference volume
between two covers during his lifetime. This was simply
due to the fact that the Quran was still being revealed,
however the arrangement of the chapters and verses of
the Quran that we are familiar with today is based upon
the instructions of Prophet Muhammad himself and
are not arranged in some haphazard manner as a few have
claimed over the years. 19
When Prophet Muhammad g£ passed away, Abu Bakr
as-Siddeeq was elected by the companions as the first
Caliph of Islam. During the Battle of Yamaamah (12
AH), around seventy companions who had memorised
the Qur'an were martyred. Umar ibn al-Khattab was
alarmed at the high number of companions being killed
so he approached Abu Bakr and said: "Many of those who
had memorised the Qur'an have died and I am scared lest
more die in later battles. This might lead to the loss of the
Qur'an, unless you collect it."
Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq replied, "How can I do that which
the Prophet H did not do?"
Umar ibn al-Khattab however, continued to convince Abu
Bakr by highlighting the merits of such an action. Abu
Bakr was the first man to accept Islam and understood
the needs of the Muslim community well, so he agreed
to Umar s suggestion. Abu Bakr and Umar decided that
Zayd ibn Thabit was the most suitable person to be put in
charge of such an important task. Zayd had been one of
the primary scribes of Prophet Muhammad s£ and as he
had also been present at the Prophet's t$& last recital to An-
gel Jibreel during Ramadan, he would have been familiar
with the exact arrangement of the Quranic surahs. Abu
Bakr told him, "You are an intelligent young man, and we
do not doubt you. You used to write the revelation for the
Prophet s£ so we want you to collect the Qur'an." Umar
also agreed to lend his full assistance. 20
The conditions set upon Zayd ibn Thabit were very
strict. Even though many had memorised the Qur'an,
a written record of the verses had to be seen before it
could be included in the official reference copy. The
other companions were told of the project and ordered
to bring their written parts of the Qur'an. Those who had
memorised the Qur'an were also requested to take part in
the project. Caliph Abu Bakr issued a general decree for
every eligible person to participate. The task was carried
out at the Prophet's Mosque, which had become a central
gathering place.
Umar ibn al-Khattab stood at the gates of the Mosque
and announced that anyone possessing written verses
dictated from the Prophet £fe must bring them. Bilal ibn
Rabah (may Allah be well pleased with him) announced
the same thing through the streets of Madinah. 21
228 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Opposite page
Double pages from a 1 9th
century South East Asian
Qur'an written with a thick
pen on machine made paper.
The script appears to be a
local variant of naskh written
by a neat hand. Note that
the ftitha and kasra vowel
marks are not straight lines
as in most Qur'ans, but have
been written as upside down
'ticks' which gives a unique
appearance to the whole text.
The last section of Surah Taa
Haa (20) is on the right hand
page with Surah al-Anbiyaa
(The Prophets, 21) starting
on the left. The writing in red
written sideways in the left
hand margin indicates the
start of the seventeenth juz'.
The stylized letter ayn in red
with an Arabic numeral seven
on the right hand margin
marks the end of the Surah
Taa Haa's seventh ruku.
Abu Bakr told Zayd and Umar, "Sit at the entrance to the
(Prophet's) Mosque. If anyone brings you a verse from
the Book of Allah along with two witnesses, then record
r 22
Zayd later said, "I found the last two verses of Surah al-
Bara'a with Abu Khuzaima al-Ansari." 23
This last point clearly underlines the extent to which
the companions went to ensure that this great task was
completed accurately. Although, Zayd knew these last
two verses, he could not rely on just a written copy of
the verses; he had to get confirmation from another
companion before including them in the final copy. This
very scientific process of checking and validation of the
written Quranic verses against the memorised ones was
undoubtedly a unique phenomena during the time, giv-
en the period in which the Qur'an was revealed. Hence,
barely two years after Prophet Muhammad's passing
away and with most of the major companions still alive,
the Qur'an had been compiled into a single master refer-
ence copy.
This completed copy was not bound into one book
between two covers but was kept as loose leaves. The
Quran was placed into the state archive under the
custody of Abu Bakr. Later on in Islamic history it was
this Qur'an that served as the master reference for the
Uthmanic compilation upon which all subsequent
Quranic manuscripts to the present day are based. 24
After Abu Bakr's death in 634 CE the master copy stayed
with Umar and then with his daughter Hafsah, who
was also a wife of Prophet Muhammad Ali ibn Abi
Talib stated, "The person with the greatest rewards with
regards to the (compilation) of the mushaf is Abu Bakr.
May Allah's mercy be on Abu Bakr, he was the first person
to compile the Book of Allah." 25
During the rule of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab
Abu Bakr nominated Umar ibn al-Khattab as the next
Caliph on his deathbed and entrusted the copy of the
master reference Qur'an to Umar. During Umar's reign as
Caliph, Islam spread rapidly with the territories of Islam
expanding five fold. This naturally meant that the Qur'an
also spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Caliph Umar
continued the practice enshrined by the Prophet by
sending out teachers of the Qur'an to the new regions. At
least ten companions were sent to Basra and Ibn Masud
was sent to Kufa to teach the Qur'an.
As Islam spread to Syria, the governor in Syria, Yazid ibn
Abu Sufyan, complained to Umar about the masses of
Muslims requiring education in the Qur'an and Islam. So,
Umar sent Mu'aadh, Ubada and Abu ad-Darda to Syria
and instructed them to proceed to Hims. After achieving
their aims Ubada stayed in Hims, Abu ad-Darda' went
onto Damascus and Mu'aadh went to Palestine. Abu ad-
Darda lived in Damascus for many years and established a
highly reputed study circle with over 1600 students. 26
From Madinah, Umar sent Yazid ibn Abdullah ibn Qusait
to teach the Qur'an to the outlying bedouins and Abu
Sufyan was designated as an inspector to proceed to the
tribes and discover the extent to which they had learnt.
Umar ibn al-Khattab also appointed three companions
in Madinah to teach children, each was given a monthly
salary offifteendirhams. When Umar was fa tally wounded
in the year 644 CE, he left the master reference copy of
the Qur'an with his daughter Hafsah.
230 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 231
Turning pages showing the start of
Surah Fussilat (They are explained
in detail, 41 ) and the end of the
previous chapter, Surah Ghaafir
(The Forgiver, 40) from a complete
early 19th century Javanese Qur'an
written in naskh script on dluwang
paper. This texture rich paper
is made locally from the beaten
bark of the mulberry tree and
gives the Qur'an a very distinctive
appearance.
The Uth manic compilation
After the death of Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan
was elected as the third caliph of Islam by the Muslims.
Under his rule, Islam spread even further to many
places such as Azerbaijan and Armenia. It was here that
Hudhaifa ibn al-Yaman had observed regional differences
over the pronunciation of the Qur'an; differences which
had caused friction. He was greatly concerned and on
his return to Madinah he went to Uthman ibn Affan and
said;
"O Caliph, take this Ummah [community] in hand
before they differ about their books like the Christians
and Jews," 27
Uthman was alarmed by this news and convened a gath-
ering of the leading companions of the Blessed Prophet
Muhammad After consultation Uthman informed
them that in his opinion official reference copies of the
Qur'an should be compiled and sent to all of the prov-
inces of Islam; all of the Qur'an fragments were destroyed
soon afterwards so that there would be one standard ref-
erence copy of the Qur'an within the Muslim community
worldwide to avoid disputes.
The leading companions agreed to this idea. Ali ibn
Abi Talib said concerning this incident, "O People! Do
not say evil of Uthman, but only say good about him.
Concerning the burning of the copies, I swear by Allah,
he only did this after he had called all of us. He asked us,
'What do you think (should be done) concerning these
recitations (in Azerbaijan)? For it has reached me that
each party is claiming their recitation is better and this
(attitude) might lead to disbelief.' We asked him, 'What
do you suggest we do?'
He responded;
'I think we should consolidate the Muslims on one mush-
af, so that there will not be any disagreements or disunity.'
We said, 'Verily this idea of yours is an excellent idea.'" 2S
Uthman went to great lengths to produce the volume
he had ordered. Although the Qur'an that Abu Bakr had
ordered to be compiled existed with Hafsah, Uthman
initially chose not to use this. Instead he instructed that
an independent copy be produced from the numerous
reliable sources that he had available to him, namely the
companions of Prophet Muhammad The only written
material that was accepted from the companions for in-
clusion was if it had been transcribed in the presence of
Prophet Muhammad s; himself and then double checked
by him.
Similarly, only those companions who had memorised
the Qur'an directly from Prophet Muhammad were
used to double check the written material. All of the writ-
ten and memorised material was then verified against
each other before being transcribed into a master copy.
Tliis unique process of inclusion and verification led to
the production of an accurate Qur'an volume that includ-
ed the entire Qur'an that had been revealed to Prophet
Muhammad Only when this task had been completed
did Uthman ibn Affan have this copy checked against the
first copy held by Hafsah.
Uthman went to these considerable lengths to accomplish
this task, despite the fact that an official master reference
copy existed from the time of Abu Bakr. The reason for
this was to show that the Qur'an being prepared under
orders from Uthman and the one from the time of Abu
Bakr were exactly the same. In addition both copies were
the same as the numerous fragments held by the compan-
ions of Prophet Muhammad &. This process of checking
and cross referencing against many sources ensured the
authenticity of the Qur'an as a written document as well
as perfectly matching with memorised sources. Thus,
Uthman ibn Affan not only helped to preserve the Qur'an
in its entirety but lie also ensured that the Qur'an was uni-
versally accepted without question.
232 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
234 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
An example of a large South East Asian Quran,
most likely Javanese, with traditional geometric
design work in dark red ink, late 1 8th to early
19 th century Typical of most Qur'ans from this
region, the body text in written in black ink with
the surrounding decoration in red. Written in
jawi script on machine made paper, this Quran
has undergone some damage. The covers have
been lost and the opening surah is missing. The
image shows the start of Surah al-Baqarah (The
Heifer, 2).
Another important point to note is that Uthman was able
to draw upon a far larger pool of companions of Prophet
Muhammad H in making his reference volume compared
to when the original master reference copy had been pro-
duced. Many companions had been away on expeditions
during the Caliphate of Abu Bakr and thus had been un-
able to participate in the collection of the first master ref-
erence copy made during his rule. The fact that the whole
process of Uthman s compilation is so well documented
in Islamic literature helps to remove any misconceptions
that may surround the episode. For instance Ibn Sirin
(died 732 CE) reports that:
"When Uthman decided to collect the Quran, he
assembled a committee of twelve companions from both
the Quraysh and the Ansar. Among them were Ubayy ibn
Ka'b and Zayd ibn Thabit."
Various sources reveal the names of the committee of
twelve asj
1 ) Said ibn a] -As, 2) Nan' ibn Zuraib ibn Amr ibn Naufal,
3) Zayd ibn Thabit, 4) Ubayy ibn Ka'b, 5) Abdullah ibn
az-Zubair, 6) Abdur-Rahman ibn Hisham, 7) Kathir
ibn Aflah, 8) Anas ibn Malik, 9) Abdullah ibn Abbas,
10) Malik ibn Abi Amir, 11) Abdullah ibn Umar, 12)
Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-As. 29
Uthman appointed these twelve to manage the
monumental task of collecting and tabulating all of
the verses written onto parchment in the presence of
Prophet Muhammad 4K. Once the task of assembling an
independent copy had been completed, Uthman ordered
this independently produced Quran to be checked
against the first official master reference copy produced
during the reign of Abu Bakr. Zayd ibn Thabit says, "...
Uthman then sent a message to Hafsah, asking to borrow
the original manuscript which had been entrusted to
her j she gave it to him only after he vowed to return it. In
comparing these two, I found no discrepancies. Sol gave
it back to Uthman and he, with an elated spirit, ordered
the peopl e to make duplicate copies of the Mushaf." 38
It is interesting to note the active role women played in
early Islamic society. Fourteen hundred years ago women
in other parts of the world were rarely entrusted with any
religious material, however in the Islamic world women
played an active role in religion. In this case we see the
original master reference copy of the Quran was safe-
guarded by one of the wives of Prophet Muhammad
With an authenticated copy produced from independent
sources and checked against the first reference copy,
Uthman then had this copy proof read again in the
presence of many companions. 31 Uthman then asked the
scribes to write down the Quran, indicating that Uthman
wanted the people to make their own copies for their own
personal use from his master reference volume. This also
eliminated the possibility of accusations that the master
copy could have been distorted whilst in the custody of a
single person.
Caliph Uthman ibn Affan then took another important
decision which the companions accepted. He declared
that as official copies of the Quran had been prepared
and sent out and people had also made their own cop-
ies as well; then the need for fragments of the Quran
held by numerous companions no longer existed. So he
ordered the burning of all other loose manuscripts and
fragments. 12 As many companions of Prophet Muham-
mad l| were constantly on expeditions and absent when
certain verses were revealed their personal fragments may
have been incomplete. So an additional benefit as a result
of this action was that it ensured against the possibility
of people copying these incomplete personal fragments.
Only the complete manuscript that had been agreed upon
by all of the companions was to be copied.
Mu 'sab ibn Sa'd asserts that the people were pleased with
Uthman s decision; at the very least no one voiced any
objection. Ali ibn Abi Talib said: "By Allah, he did what
he did with these fragments in the presence of us all (i.e.
and none of us objected)." 33
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 235
A large 19th century Quran
from South East Asia written
using an elegant local variant
ot naskh by an accomplished
scribe. There are thirteen
lines of text per page written
within a framework of black
and red ruled lines. The
simply drawn red, yellow
and green marginal devices
act as section markers. The
faint horizontal lines running
through the paper that are
just visible in the detailed
view on the opposite page,
reveals that the paper is
machine made, most likely
imported from Europe. The
pages show the last part of
Surah an-Nahl (The Bee,
16) and the start of Surah
Bani Israeel (al-Israa) (The
Children of Israel, 17).
Uthman then sent a number of official copies to various
parts of the Muslim world so they could be used as master
references. It is believed that eight copies were made, six
were sent out, one was kept in Madinah and Uthman kept
a copy for himself. Copies are believed to have been sent
to Kufa, Basra, Syria, Makkah, Yemen and Bahrain, In
addition Uthman sent a Qar 'x (teacher) with each copy to
instruct people how to recite the Quran properly. Zayd
ibn Thabit was asked to remain and teach in Madinah, but
other companions were sent to different places; Abdullah
ibn as-Sa'ib was sent to Makkah, Al-Mughira ibn Shihab
was sent to Syria, Amir ibn Abd Qais was dispatched to
Basra and Abu Abdur-Rahman as-Sulami was sent to
Kufa. 34
Each of these teachers recited to the people of his
respective city in the manner that he had learnt it through
authenticated multiple channels going back to Prophet
Muhammad Si. Sending a Quranic scholar with every
Quran, therefore, ensured that proper recitation and
teaching was dependant on the learning through direct
contact with teachers who could trace their source of
knowledge directly back to Prophet Muhammad
Thus, Uthman ensured the official copies of the Quran
existed as a standard around the Muslim world, and
from this many thousands upon thousands of public and
private copies of the Quran were produced and continue
to be produced to this present day. In summary, Uthman
ensured that the Quran was preserved in the same state as
it was Divinely revealed. To this day all written copies are
based upon the standard official copy of the Quran which
Uthman had ordered be produced. Uthman also ensured
that the manner of recitation was based upon teachings of
Prophet Muhammad thus ensuring nothing was lost or
altered in pronunciation. The Divine Protection of Allah,
the wisdom of Prophet Muhammad J§j and the decisions
by Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman
ibn Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib (may Allah be pleased with
them) as well as all of the other companions ensured that
the Qur'an available today is the same Qur'an which was
Divinely revealed to Prophet Muhammad 4fc over 1,400
years ago. As a sign of Allah's promise to preserve the
Qur'an, the fact that the Qur'an has survived intact into
the modern technological age has meant that its future
preservation is now even more secure than at any other
time in Islamic history.
236 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Summary of the Compilation and Preservation of the Quran from 610 to 656 CE
Allah, The Most High
Angel Jibreel
1
1
The companions of Prophet Muhammad t£ taught the Qur'an to the next generation.
£666
^ 66666
^ 6666(
Prophet Muhammad $ 610-632 CE
The complete Qur'an was written
down by numerous companions of
Prophet Muhammad *§* during his
lifetime in Makkah and Madinah.
Some of the scribes of Prophet
Muhammad $ in Madinah were;
Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq
Uthman ibn Affan
Uraar ibn al-Khattab
Ali ibn Abi Talib
Abu Ayyub al-Ansari
Ubayy ibn Ka'b
Zayd ibn Thabit
Aban ibn Sa'id
Abu U ma m a
Abu Hudhaifa
Abu Sufyan
Abu Salama
Abu Abbas
(May Allah be pleased with them all.)
666666666
666666666666
66666666666
6666666666
Many Companions of Prophet Muhammad & learnt and
memorised the Qur'an directly from him during his lifetime.
Zayd ibn Thabit was
instructed by Abu
Bakr as-Siddeeq and
Umar ibn al-Khattab
to compile a master
copy of the Qur'an.
Zayd ibn Thabit carried out the task with great
diligence. He requested every companion of
the Prophet Muhammad 0£ to bring him their
written verses of the Qur'an. He only accepted
written material that had been dictated by
Prophet Muhammad £S himself.
In addition he carried out a thorough checking
process on the written material. Each verse had
to be verified by at least two of the companions
of Prophet Muhammad G* who had memorised
the Qur'an directly from the Blessed Prophet
Muhammad >1£ himself.
By the time Prophet Muhammad passed away in 632 CE the complete
Qur'an had been written down on various materials such as leather, palm
leaf, bone and stone. These Quranic fragments were used to prepare a
complete master copy of the Qur'an during the Caliphate of Uthman ibn
Affan.
I
he complete
ft
The first complete master reference copy of the Qur'an was compiled
within two years of Prophet Muhammad £S passing away. It was held by
Umar ibn al-Khattab after Abu Bakr passed away. After Umar was martyred
in the year 644 CE the master Qur'an was kept by his daughter Hafsah. It
was destroyed after Hafsah passed away.
238 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
2>6666
>6666
166666 666666666 666666666
006666666666 666666666666 666666666666
66666666666 66666666666
6666666666 6666666666
The companions ot the companions of Prophet Muhammad £.£ in turn taught the Qur'an to
the next generation. In this way the Qur'an has been passed through the generations through
teaching and memorisation.
66666666666
6666666666
The result today is that there exists an
unbroken chain of oral transmission leading
directly back to Prophet Muhammad
Uthman's Qur'an was double checked by numerous companions who had memorised the whole Qur'an.
By the time Uthman ibn AfFan became Caliph,
the Islamic world had spread to encompass a
vast region. In order to prevent disputes arising
over the correct pronunciation of the Qur'an he
ordered that an official reference Qur'an should
be written and sent to the main areas of the
Muslim world. For this task he appointed
a committee of 1 2 companions.
Sa'id ibn al-As,
NafV ibn Zuraib,
Zayd ibn Thabit,
Ubayy ibn Ka'b,
Abdullah ibn az-Zubair,
Abdur-Rahman ibn Hisham,
Kathir ibn Aflah,
Anas ibn Malik,
Abdullah ibn Abbas,
Malik ibn Abi Amir,
Abdullah ibn Umar,
Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-As.
(May Allah be pleased with them all.)
Uthman instructed the
companions ot Prophet
Muhammad t< to make their own
personal copies of the Qur'an.
Uthman then ordered that all
loose fragments of the Qur'an
to be burnt, after consulting
with the companions of Prophet
Muhammad
The committees first task was to
compile a Master Qur'an volume that
would act as a reference source; from
which all subsequent copies would be
made. Even though the first master
volume that was held by Hafsah was
available, the committee decided to
produce their own independent copy
from the numerous Qur'an fragments
held by the companions and from
those that had memorised the Qur'an.
Once complete they would compare
it against Hafsah's Qur'an. They also
had access to a far greater number of
companions compared to Abu Bakr's
compilation, as many had been
away on expeditions.
666666666
666666666666
6666666666
Uthman ibn AfFan instructed the scribes in
Madinah to make eight official copies of the
Qur'an. These copies were then sent to various
parts of the Islamic world. Uthman also
dispatched a Qiiri (reciter) along with each copy
to teach people how to recite the Qur'an correctly.
Copies were sent to; Kufa, Basra, Syria, Makkah,
Yemen and Bahrain. The two remaining copies
were kept in Madinah, one of these was
for the Caliph himself.
From the Qur'an teachers Zayd ibn Thabit is
known to have stayed in Madinah. Abdullah ibn
as-Sa'ib was sent to Makkah. Al-Mughira ibn
Shihab was sent to Syria Amir ibn Abd Qais was
sent to Basra. Abu Abdur-Rahman as-Sulami went
to Kufa. (May Allah be pleased with them all.)
All present day copies of the Qur'an are based
on this early compilation and remain unchanged
from their original form as revealed to
Prophet Muhammad
KEY
Checking process.
Written transmission.
Oral transmission.
Uthman's Qur'an was compared to the first manuscript held by Hafsah and no discrepancies were found.
Jur'anic fragments were used to prepare the Qur'an volume ordered by Caliph Uthman.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 239
Decorative opening pages
from a 30 volume Chinese
Quran written in classical sini
script, late 17th century or
possibly early 18th century
CE. Apart from the last two
words, the whole of verse
60 from Surah an-Naml
(The Ants, 27) is written
across both pages: "Is not
He (better than your gods)
Who created the heavens
and the earth, and sends
down for you water (rain)
from the sky, whereby We
cause to grow wonderful
gardens full of beauty and
delight? It is not in your
ability to cause the growth
of their trees. Is there any
illah (god) with Allah? Nay,
but they are a people who
ascribe equals (to Him)!"
There .ire three lines of
large sini style text per page
set within a plain panel
surrounded by a framework
of dark green and gold
geometric designs. The
shamsa roundels in the
margins are for decorative
purposes only.
240 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 241
Superbly illustrated centre
pages with the start of Surah
Bani Israeel (The Children
of Israel, 17) from a 17 th
century Qur'an written in
naskh script from the Indian
subcontinent with some
influence from Persia. There
are seven lines of text per
page within a ruled central
panel surrounded by a sea
of multi-coloured flowers.
This particular Qur'an lacks
the traditional cloud-motif
around the body text. The
fine artwork and symmetry
present the reader with a
dramatic display. The text is
written on polished paper
and is well bound with a line
hard leather cover.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 243
/ 9
4*. S s
A 1 6th century section ( 1 2th juz") of the Quran written in bihari script from India. Each page contains 13 lines of text written in black ink. Simple
circular patterns mark the end of each verse. The pages are open on the end part of Surah Hud ( 1 1 ) and the start of Surah Yusuf (Joseph, 12). The
elongated letter ayn drawn in the left margin marks the end of the surahs first part.
A similar 16th century Quran volume (28th juz) to the one shown on the previous page; again hand written in bihari script from India. Each
page contains 13 lines of text written in black ink. Simple red shapes mark the end individual verses. This section has some damage in the form of
bore holes caused by insects. The pages are open on the start of Surah al-Jumu'ah (Friday, 62).
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 245
*
A volume from part of a
set of thirty, written in a
variant of bihari script using
dark red ink for vowels, late
16th or 17th century. The
calligrapher has used an
acidic ink that has caused
the text to show through the
page. Starting with part of
verse 1 20 from Surah Taa
Haa (20) continuing to the
end of the surah. The last
line on the left hand page is
the surah header showing
the start of Surah al-Anbtyaa
(The Prophets, 21 ) overleaf.
246 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 247
Further Indonesian Qur'ans written in a local variation of naskh script, dated to the early 19th century. The top manuscript has fifteen lines of text
per page set within red and black ruled lines. Saffron coloured markers have been used to differentiate individual verses. The start of Surah al-
Ankaboot (The Spider, 29) and the last few verses of Surah al-Qasas (The Narration, 28). The text of the lower example is set within a traditional
geometric design with central hasp shapes projecting into the margins.
COMPILATION AND PRESERVATION 249
The Qur an Through the Ages
Allah's promise to preserve the Quran is supported by
an enormous wealth of historical evidence in the form
of Quran manuscripts that date back to the very first
century of Islam. A book that has resisted any alterations
for over fourteen centuries is itself sufficient proof of
its Divine origin. Quranic manuscripts form one of the
largest groups of historical manuscripts in the world, with
numerous high quality examples surviving to this present
day
Islamic history spans a vast area of the world stretching
over three continents. From the Mamluks of Egypt and
Mughals of India to the Sultans of Damascus and Mus-
lim Spain along with the countless scribes, calligraphers,
lay people and the numerous great scholars of the past,
they have all played their part in helping to preserve
the Quran. Regardless of the era or the region in which
Quranic manuscripts have been copied over the last 1 400
years, or the style of writing used, it is well established
that no two copies differ in their content. In fact the origi-
nal manuscripts compiled by Uthman ibn Affan are still
in existence today with copies held in the Topkapi Saray
museum in Istanbul and in Tashkent.
Two of the main hallmarks of Islamic civilisation over the
centuries have been the contribution to the development
of mathematics and science, and in the arts with the
extensive use of calligraphy. Beautifully written verses of
the Qur 'an have adorned the interior and exterior walls of
mosques and minarets for centuries.
From the 7th century, writing in Arabic script became the
main theme of Islamic visual culture as Islam spread to
encompass a vast area of the globe. The origins of written
Arabic script, however, can be traced to at least as far back
as the 3rd century CE; there are numerous examples of
ancient rocks in Arabia engraved with Arabic writing. 1
As discussed previously, by the time Uthman ibn Affan
became the third Caliph of Islam, a definitive reference
copy of the Quran was compiled, written in large conso-
nant heavy kufic script from the original writings of the
companions of Prophet Muhammad i£. Eight copies of
the scripture were written in total and then sent to all pro-
vincial parts of the Islamic world to ensure that all copies
of the Quran were exact. The original reference copy of
the Qur 'an, upon which all subsequent copies are based,
was retained in Madinah. It remained in Madinah until
it was taken to Istanbul in the early part of the twentieth
century. The results of Uthman's endeavours are clear in
at least two ways. Firstly, every Muslim province gained
access to the Qur 'an and secondly, this ensured that the
skeletal text would not be altered in any way.
Development of writing styles
During the first and second centuries of Islam (7 - 8th
century CE) sloping and angular writing styles had
gained prominence. Hijazi script is usually considered
to be one of the earliest types of Arabic writing known.
Sometimes referred to as mail, or leaning script, the main
characteristic of hijazi is its slight slant to the right. One
of the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Quran
compiled during the 8th century (circa. 150 AH) is
written in this rare script. Known as the Mail Qur 'an (see
the image on the following page) this codex contains over
two thirds of the Quranic text.
Opposite
The image shows the
development of Quranic
reading aids through the ages.
Although the script type used
today may have developed
over time to make the Quran
easier to read, the actuai
Arabic words have remained
the same. All four fragments
are the same verse, "Surely
We have revealed the
Reminder and We will most
surely be its guardian."
Surah al-Hijr (The Rocky
Tract) 15:9. The top most
fragment from the Quran is
from the early Islamic period
and lacks skeletal dots and
vowel markings. The second,
third and fourth lines show
the addition of reading aids to
help correct pronunciation.
The reading aids have no
impact on the meaning
of the words, which have
remained the same for over
1 4 centuries. The image has
been adapted from the cover
of Professor Muhammad al-
Azami's monumental work;
The History of The Quranic
Text. UK Islamic Academy,
2003.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 257
A vellum page from a Mail Qur'an written in mail (or hijazi) script originating from the Hijaz region of .Arabia and dated to around the 8th century CE
( 1 st/2nd century AH). This type of script was popular in the Arabian peninsula at the time of revelation of the Qur'an. The text is consonant heavy and
written in a continuous format without separation between verses. There are no diacritical marks or letter dots. Every tenth verse is marked by a red
hollow circle surrounded by dots. Given the remarkable age of the manuscript it is enlightening to see that the text of the Qur'an has not changed at all.
The page starts with verse 183 from Surah ash-Shu 'araa (Trie Poets, 26) to the end of 209. Location: British Library, London.
258 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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The Ma'// Qur'an is written on vellum in single column
format using large letters devoid of diacritical marks
(tashkeel) and dots (nuqat). There are circular marks to
indicate the endings of the verses. Another characteristic
of these early Quranic manuscripts was that at the end of
a line, a single word was often broken into parts, with half
of the word starting on the next line.
The other main group of scripts in use during the early
Islamic period were the geometric scripts known as kufic.
Due to its strikingly angular and very stylized form, kufic
was also used extensively in architectural decoration
either on stone or mosaic. We also know that Caliph
Uthman ibn AfTan's original manuscripts were written in
this type of style and would have lacked skeletal dots or
any other markings. The Qur'an held in Tashkent (see
the following pages) is thought to be one of the original
Uthmanic copies as it is devoid of any vowel markings or
verse separators. Similarly, the Quranic manuscript held
in the Topkapi Palace museum in Istanbul (see pages 27 1
& 273) is most likely one of Uth man's originals, possibly
even Uth man's personal copy that stayed in Madinah for
centuries and then found its way to Istanbul around 100
years ago. Some historians regard this Qur'an as a copy
of Uthman s original made a few decades later due to the
presence of a limited dotting scheme and some verse
markers; although these could have been added to the
manuscript at a later date. However, Caliph Uthman ibn
Affan himself was most likely familiar with these devices
as Malik ibn Abi Amar al-Abashi had included surah and
verse separators in his own personal copy of the Qur'an
during preparation of the official Uthmanic copies. 2
Caliph Uthman's decision to minimise written vowels
and avoid the use of verse separators and dots was most
probably meant as a deterrent to those who would try
to memorise the Qur'an by themselves without proper
guidance. Therefore, it is quite plausible that the Quranic
manuscript held at the Topkapi museum in Istanbul is
indeed Uthman's personal copy, even though it does
contain a limited marking scheme. Regardless of the
above, the manuscript is at the very least a complete 7th
century copy of one of the original Uthmanic Qur'ans,
upon which all subsequent Qur'ans are based.
Development of Quranic reading aids
As Islam spread and grew beyond the Arabian peninsula,
it became apparent that in order to aid correct pronuncia-
tion of the Qur 'an, a system of reading aids would have to
be developed. In 688 CE Abu al-Aswad ad-Du'ali intro-
duced a system of diacritical markings, known as tashkeel
in Arabic, to indicate short vowels, Ad-Du'ali introduced
four markings that took the form of red coloured dots
above or below letters to differentiate them from skeletal
dots that were usually written in black ink. The manu-
script shown above is a very characteristic example of the
Ad-Du'ali system. In this manuscript the base text of the
Qur'an is easily discernable from the additional mark-
ings. The tashkeel are in red and the nuqat dots are writ-
ten in a fine pen in black ink. A single dot placed after, on
or below the letter represented a damma,fatha or kasra,
whereas two dots indicated double vowels, i.e. damma
tanween, fatha tanween, or kasra tanween.
A Quran written in kufic
script using a horizontal
format, 9th century. The
manuscript provides a
good example of the ad-
Du'ali system of diacritical
markings, known as
tashkeel in Arabic, that was
introduced in 688 CE. Red
dots are used for the fatha,
damma and kasra vowel
marks and green dots indicate
glottal stops. The large gold
roundel indicates the end of
the tenth verse. The text on
the right hand page is from
Surah al-Ankaboot (The
Spider, 29) verses 23 to 26.
The left hand side is from
Surah Luqmaan (32) verses
21 to 25. Location: British
Library, Loudon.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 259
Copy of the consonant heavy Quran commissioned by Caliph Uthman ibn Affan. The text is devoid of dots and diacritical markings and is written
in a large kufic type script without any separation between verses. One of the eight copies of the Qur'an made by Caliph Uthman originally sent
to Damascus was carried away as a war trophy to Samarqand by Timur Lenk (1336-1405). In 1868 the Russians occupied the city and the copy
was transferred to St Petersburg. After the downfall of the Czarist regime, a Muslim General, Ali Akbar Topchibashi, sent a soldier to the Imperial
Palace to retrieve the Qur'an and despatched it to Tashkent, where it has remained to this day.
In 1905, Czar Nicholas II published about 50 copies of a facsimile edition in St Petersburg. The rare copy shown in the image above was acquired
by Exhibition Islam and is based on a microfilm copy of one of the St Petersburg prints. Although numerous pages have been lost over the centuries
from the original copy held in Tashkent, it is inspiring to see that the fascimile copy clearly shows that the original Quranic text is identical to the
Qur'an in circulation today. The page on the right hand side starts part of the way through verse 29 from Surah al-A'raaf (The Heights, 7) on the
word wadh u'lwo. The text continues through to verse 32 on the left hand page ending on the words yaw-mal qiyaamaa.
260 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 261
Right
A 9th century CE Quran
page in a compact western
kujic script trom North
Africa. Written on vellum
using brown ink with red,
yellow and green diacritics
for help with recitation.
This manuscript provides a
good example of how kufic
script began to develop a
more rounded appearance;
kufic scripts were eventually
superceded by more rounded
cursive styles from the late
1 Oth century onwards. The
page also highlights the
widespread use of reading
aids to help with correct
pronunciation. These were
adopted as the result of the
spread of Islam outside of the
Arabian peninsula. The page
starts with the word ragihliiti
from the middle of verse 35
.ind ends in the middle ot
verse 4 1 on ma-a-kum wa lad
from surah al-Baqarah (The
Heifer, 2).
Opposite
Two vellum Qur'an leaves
written in kufic script,
Abbasid, 10th century CE.
There are eleven lines of
text on each page written in
brown ink with red, green
and with black diacritical
dots. The top page shows
verses from Surah al-Mulk
(The Dominion, 67), starting
with the fifth to last word
(hikumut ctr-aia) of verse
16 and ends in the centre
of the last word of verse 20
(ghuroor). The lower image
starts from the middle of the
word diyaari'kum of verse 8,
from Surah al-Mumtahanah
(The Woman to be examined,
60) and ends in the middle
of the tenth verse; tarji-oo-
hunna ilaa.
Verse endings are marked by a pyramid of three gold
dots. The larger circular design indicates the tenth verse.
Furthermore, by this time words also tended to be writ-
ten together and were no longer split over two lines. An-
other point of interest is the fact that calligraphers would
vary the amount of markings depending on the reading
abilities of the person for whom the manuscript was be-
ing prepared.
Around a century later the marking scheme introduced
by Ad-Du'ali was further developed by Khalil ibn Ahmad
al-Fraheedi, who replaced the coloured dots with shapes
resembling the different symbols that we are familiar with
today. 1 With the passage of time, as Islam spread to non-
Arab parts of the world, the inclusion of vowel markings,
dotting schemes, surah and verse separators became the
norm to aid correct pronunciation of the Qur'an. It must
be stressed that these additions bore no effect on the pro-
nunciation of words or the meaning of verses.
The 10th century onwards saw a number of changes to
Qur'an formats taking place in terms of size, decoration
and materials used, together with the development of
more rounded or cursive styles of writing alongside hijazi
and kufic. Other developments included the widespread
use of chapter headings, verse separators, illumination
and marginal ornaments to indicate prostration, or vari-
ous subdivisions of the Qur'an such as a manzil (division
into 7 equal parts) or juz' (division into 30 equal parts).
Many of these developments were due to the greater use
of paper rather than vellum, which was costly. In fact it
was the mass production and use of paper throughout the
Islamic world that helped to not only preserve the Qur'an,
but also drove literacy in general and made possible the
Golden Age of Islamic Science that lasted well into the
16th century. Even as early as the 10th century, Muslim
centres of learning such as Cordoba in Spain and Bagh-
dad in Iraq boasted hundreds of libraries, each contain-
ing thousands of volumes. The extent and advancement
of Islamic scientific achievements becomes self evident
as history shows that there were probably more books in
these two cities alone than the whole of Western Europe
put together.
262 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
si
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THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 263
Right
Qui 'an leaf written in western
kufic script written on vellum
using brown ink with red,
yellow and green diacritics
for help with recitation, 10th
Century CE North Africa.
Verses 30-35 of Surah al-
Baqarah (Hie Heifer, 2) are
shown.
Opposite page
The Arabic text for "In the
Name of Allah, The Most
Compassionate, The Most
Merciful" taken from twenty
different Qur'ans showing
examples of different script
styles over the centuries.
Note that the 14th century
Mamluk ornamental kufic is
a surah header panel from
Surah an-Naas (Mankind,
114).
As Islam spread beyond the Middle East, the cursive
styles of writing began to supersede the older hijazi and
kufic scripts by the late 10th century CE. Naskh script
developed by Ibn Muqlah (886-940 CE) became one of
the most popular scripts for writing Quran manuscripts
mainly due to its legibility By the middle of the 11th
century the older script styles were mainly being employ-
ed for decorative purposes and decoration of surah
headers and for marginal devices throughout most of the
Islamic world.
The basic naskh style of script was developed further into
a number of other forms; each with their own regional
characteristic. The main types were thuluth, muhaqqaq,
tawqi, rayhani and riqa. The scripts of North Africa, sub-
Saharan Africa and Muslim Spain (maghribi, Sudani,
sahrawi and andalusi) differed quite notably in their
character, especially in their use of multiple colours and
their deep and curved loops below the baseline. In India,
during the Mughal period, a distinctive script known
as bihari was developed, whereas in China, a variant
known as sini script was being used. From these, many
other variants have developed over the centuries such as,
nast'aliq, shikaste, diwani, ta'liq, ijaze and jawi.
The following section of the book shows how the words of
the Quran have not changed over time regardless of the
century in which the manuscripts were written. We have
endeavoured to show example manuscripts, some only
consisting of a leaf or a fragment and others a complete
Quran, from every century of Islam to the present day.
A corresponding page from a standard modern printed
Quran has been given alongside each manuscript for the
purposes of comparison. Although some of the historical
manuscripts are written in the warsh mode of recitation,
the modern printed copy is hafs throughout. A translation
of the meaning has also been provided for the relevant
verses, although space has not allowed for complete pages
to be translated in every case. Furthermore, there are a
number of maps in between the sections that depict the
spread of Islam as well as showing the origins of some of
the manuscripts.
264 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
til,
Rayhani, Persia, 16th century.
Kufic, Hijaz, 7th century.
Bihari, India, 16th century.
Kufic, Hijaz, 7th century.
m
Naskh, Persia, 17th century.
M«'i/, Hijaz, 8th century.
i • r i it
Hausawi, Saharan Africa, 18th century.
Eastern kufic, Iraq, 1 1th century.
fv^b^^V —
1
Archaic naskh, 1 1th century, Iraq.
Sudani, African Horn, 1 8th century.
Muhaqqaq, Abbasid, 12th century.
Sini, China, 1 8th century.
I
/owij Indonesia, 18th century.
Ormimenta/ fcw/ic, Mamluk, 14th century.
r
Naskh, Ottoman, 19th century.
Maghribi, North Africa, 14th century.
Diwani, Ottoman, 19th century.
Jhuluth, Mamluk, 14th century.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 265
3ts written between the 7th and 8th centuries CE,
Dumat al-Jandal
o
o
Madinah
akkah
oTaif
The spread of Islam
Islamic World by 632 CE . This was the year that
Prophet Muhammad passed away.
266 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Arabia
Sana
0
« Yemen
8th century CE , Hijaz (p. 28 1 ,
Arabian Sea
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 267
268 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
/jo
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V
7 th Century ce
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 269
Description: 7th century copy of an
original reference Qur'an compiled by
Uthman ibn Affan. Written in consonant
heavy kufic script on vellum with minimal
dotting scheme and verse markers (perhaps
added at a later date).
Reference: Surah al-Baqarah, 2: 222-228.
Islamic period: 1st century AH.
Origin: Hijaz region, Arabia.
Location: Topkapi Museum, Istanbul,
Turkey.
270 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
They ask you concerning menstruation. Say: "That is an Adha {a harmful thing for a husband to have a sexual
intercourse with his wife while she is having her menses), therefore, keep away from women during menses and
go not into them till they are purified (from menses and have taken a hath)."
Your wives are a tilth for you, so go to your tilth, when or how you will, and send (good deeds, or ask Allah to
bestow upon you pious offspring) for your own selves beforehand. And fear Allah, and know that you are to
meet Him (in the Hereafter), and give good tidings to the believers {O Muhammad r . ).
Ami make not Allah's (Name) an excuse in your oaths against your doing good and acting piously, and making
peace among mankind. And Allah is All-Hearer, AIl-Knower (i.e. do not swear much and if you have sworn
against doing something good then give an expiation for the oath and do good).
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 222-224.
A page from an original reference Quran compiled by Uthman ibn ArTan.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 271
Surah Saad 38: 42-50.
272 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Page from an original reference Quran compiled by Uthman ibn Affan.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 273
■
Description: an example of a rare Quranic
leaf handwritten in a hybrid kufic-hijazi
script on leather parchment. The leaf
has no diacritical marks or dots which is
characteristic of early kufic script.
Reference: Surah's al-lklaas, 1 12; al-Falaq,
113 and al-Naas, 1 14.
Islamic period: 1st century AH.
Origin: Hijaz region, Arabia.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Say (O Muhammad r:;): "He is Allah, (the) One.
Allah-us-Samad [Allah - the Self-Sufficient Master, Whom all creatures need, (He neither eats nor drinks)].
He begets not, nor was He begotten.
And there is none coequal or comparable to Him."
Surah al-Ikhlaas (Hie Purity) 112.
In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful
Say: "I seek refuge with (Allah), the Lord of the daybreak, From the evil of what He has created,
And from the evil of the darkening (night) as it comes with its darkness; (or the moon as it sets or goes away),
And from the evil of those who practise witchcraft when they blow in the knots,
And from the evil of the envier when he envies."
Surah al-Falaq (The Daybreak) 1 13.
274 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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A 1300 year old Quranic manuscript written in hybrid kujic-hijazi script on leather parchment.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 275
Description: Quran leaf in a hybrid kufic-
hijazi script written on vellum. The page
is an unusually large and well preserved
example of some of the earliest Arabic
writing. The page is slightly wrinkled due to
the affects of damp.
Reference: Surahs al-Kafiroon, 109 (from
verse 3), an-Nasr, 1 10 and al-Masad, 111.
Islamic period: 1st century AH.
Origin : Hijaz region, Arabia.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Nay (0 Muhammad ;€-): "O al-Kafirun (disbelievers in Allah, in His Oneness, in His Angels, in His Books, in
His Messengers, in the Day of Resurrection, and in Al-Qadar) !
1 worship not that which you worship,
Nor will you worship that which I worship.
And I shall not worship that which you are worshipping.
Nor will you worship that which I worship.
To you be your religion, and to me my religion
(Islamic Monotheism) ."
Surah al-Kariroon (The Disbelievers) 109.
276 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
mm
A 1300 year old Qur anic manuscript written in hybrid kufic-hijazi script on leather parchment.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AUES 277
278 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
o
8™ Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 279
280 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A page from one of the oldest Qur an manuscripts penned on vellum in a slanted hijazi script also known as mail
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 281
282 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Quranic leaf written in a slanted hijazi script on vellum.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 283
Description: Vellum Quran page written
in consonant heavy kufic script from the
Hijaz region of the Arabian peninsula. The
text lacks vowel markings, dotting scheme
and verse separators.
Reference: Surah Ghaafir, 40: from part of
verse 15 to verse 19.
Islamic period: lst/2nd century AH.
Origin: Hijaz region, Arabia.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
(He is Allah) Owner of High Ranks anci Degrees, the Owner of the Ibrone. He sends the Revelation by His
Command to any of His slaves He wills, that he (the person who receives Revelation) may warn (men) of the
Day of Mutual Meeting (i.e. the Day of Resurrection).
The Day when they will (all) come out, nothing of them will be hidden from Allah. Whose is the kingdom this
Day? (Allah Himself will reply to His Question:) It is Allah's, - the One, the Irresistible! This Day shall every
person be recompensed for what he earned. This Day no injustice (shall be done to anybody).
Truly, Allah is Swift in reckoning.
And warn them (O Muhammad •"-■;) of the Day that is drawing near (i.e. the Day of Resurrection), when the
hearts will be choking the throats, and they can neither return them (hearts) to their chests nor can they throw
them out. There will be no friend, nor an intercessor for the Zalimun (polytheists and wrongdoers),
who could be given heed to. Allah knows the fraud of the eyes, and all that the breasts conceal.
284 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN THROUGH THE ACES 285
286 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
St
L A
Folio from a Quran manuscript on parchment with 17 lines of kufic script in brown ink, no original letter-pointing,
occasional later additions of letter-pointing in a grey ink and no vocalisation.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES
m
anuscripts written between the 9th and 12th centuries CE.
Spain
Morocco
I Fez
doba O
/ CXCranada
12th century CE (p. 319).
10th century CE (p. 305).
ft a . C
Libya
Egypt
9th century CE (p. 295).
The Spread of Islam
Islamic World by 632 CE. This was the year that
Prophet Muhammad passed away.
Islamic World by 66 1 CE, at the end of the period
of the first four Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam.
Islamic World by 750 CE, at the end of the
Ummayyad Caliphate.
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12th century CE (p. 323).
288 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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9th century CE (p. 293).
Jeddah
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Arabia
Yemen
I I th century CE (p. 31 0.
India
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11th century CE(p. 315).
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 289
290 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
o
9 th Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 291
292 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Over 1,000 years old, this Quran leaf is written in traditional sharp and angular kufic script on white vellum.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 293
Description: Folio from a Quran
manuscript on parchment with 5 lines
of kufic script in gold with sepia outlines.
Vocalisation in red dots, diacritics marked
with green and blue dots, individual verses
marked with gold rosettes circled in blue.
Reference: Surah an-Naml, 27: part of verse
13 to middle of verse 14.
Islamic period: 3rd century AH.
Origin: Tunisia.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
O Musa (Moses)! Verily, it is I, Allah, the All-Mighty, the All-Wise. "And throw down your stick!" But when he
saw it moving as if it was a snake, he turned in flight, and did not look back. (It was said:) "O Musa (Moses) !
Fear not: verily, the Messengers fear not in front of Me. Except him who has done wrong and afterwards has
changed evil for good; then surely, 1 am Oft- Forgiving, Most Merciful.
And put your hand into your bosom, it will come forth white without hurt. (These are) among the nine signs
(you will take) to Pharaoh and his people. Verily, they are a people who are Fasiqun (rebellious, disobedient to
Allah). But when Our verses (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.) came to them,
clear to see, they said: "This is a manifest magic."
And they denied them (those verses) wrongfully and arrogandy, though their own selves were convinced
thereof [i.e. those (verses) are from Allah, and Musa (Moses) is the Messenger of Allah in truth, but they
disliked to obey Musa (Moses), and hated to believe in his Message of Monotheism], So, see what was the end
of the Mufsidun (disbelievers, evildoers, liars and disobedient to Allah).
This kufic leaf is from a famous manuscript written entirely in gold, known to have once
been housed in Kairouan, Tunisia.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 295
300 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
J*
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THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 301
302 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Quran leaves with black eastern kufic script written on thick hand made paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 303
Description: A page from a Qur an written
in eastern kufic with use of different colours
for the vowels. Markings within the text
and margin indicate Quranic divisions and
verse endings.
Reference: End of Surah Luqmaan, 31 and
the start of Surah as-Sajdah, 32: verse 1 to
part of verse 9.
Islamic period: 4th century AH.
Origin: Egypt.
Location: British Library, London.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Alif-Lam-Mim, Hie revelation of the Book (this Quran) in which there is no doubt, is from the Lord of the
Alamin (mankind, jinn and all that exists)! Or say they: "He (Muhammad . ) has fabricated it?" Nay, it is the
truth from your Lard, so that you may warn a people to whom no warner has come before you
(O Muhammad in order that they may be guided.
Allah is He Who has created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them in six Days. Then He rose
over (Istawa) the Throne (in a manner that suits His Majesty). You (mankind) have none, besides Him, as a
Wali (protector or helper) or an intercessor. Will you not then remember (or receive admonition)?
He manages and regulates (every) affair from the heavens to the earth; then it (affair) will go up to Him, in one
Day, the space whereof is a thousand years of your reckoning {i.e. reckoning of our present world's time). That is
He, the All-Knower of the unseen and the seen, the All-Mighty, the Most Merciful.
Surah as-Sajdah (The Prostration) 32: 1 -6.
306 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A page from a Quran written in eastern kufic script over 1000 years ago.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 307
308 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
J*
o
TH
Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 309
Surah at-Tawbah (Trie Repentance) 9: 110-11 2.
310 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Abbasid Quran page written in naskh on paper dyed with a henna colour.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 3 ! 1
Description: Quranic leaf written in
eastern kufic script characterised by long
upright strokes and short strokes to the
left. Written on thick henna-coloured paper
with marginal devices, surah headers and
roundels marking verse ending.
Reference: Surah ash-Shams, 91 and Surah
al-Layl, 92.
Islamic period: 5th century AH.
Origin: Iraq/Persian region.
Location; Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
By the sun and its brightness.
By the moon as it follows it (the sun).
By the day as it shows up (the sun's) brightness.
By the night as it conceals it (the sun).
By the heaven and Him Who built it.
By the earth and Him Who spread it.
By Nafs (Adam or a person or a soul), and Him Who perfected him in proportion;
Then He showed him what is wrong for him and what is right for him. Indeed he succeeds
who purifies himself. And indeed he fails who corrupts himself (i.e. disobeys what Allah has ordered, by
rejecting the true Faith of Islamic Monotheism or by following polytheism,
or by doing every kind of evil wicked deed).
Surah ash- Shams ( The Sun) 91: 1-10.
312 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 313
316 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
o
12™ Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 317
Description: Very rare Andalusian
Quranic fragment written in elegant
maghribi script on vellum, Illuminated
devices between verses with diacritics in
red, vocalisation in blue and green and
circular devices in the margin.
Reference: Surah al-Qasas, 28: part of
verse 41 to part of verse 43.
Islamic period: 5th/6th century AH.
Origin: Cordoba, Muslim Spain.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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Pharaoh said: "O chiefs! I know not that you have an ilah (a god) other than me. So kindle for me (a fire), O
Hainan, to bake (bricks out of) clay, and set up for me a Sarhan (a lofty tower, or palace) in order that 1 may
look at (or look for) the Ilah (God) of Moses; and verily, I think that he (Moses) is one of the liars."
And he and his hosts were arrogant in the land, without right, and they thought that they
would never return to Us. So, We seized him and his hosts, and We threw them all into the sea (and drowned
them). So, behold (O Muhammad ss) what was the end of the Zalimun [wrongdoers, polytheists and those
who disbelieved in the Oneness of their Lord (Allah)] or rejected the advice of His Messenger (Moses). And
We made them leaders inviting to the Fire: and on the Day of Resurrection, they will not be helped. And We
made a curse to follow them in this world, and on the Day of Resurrection, they will be among Al-Maqbuhun
(those who are prevented from receiving Allah's Mercy or any good; despised or destroyed).
And indeed We gave Moses - after We had destroyed the generations of old - the Scripture (the Torah) as an
enlightenment for mankind, and a guidance and a mercy, that they might remember.
Surah al-Qasas (The Narration) 28: 38-43.
318 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Description: Seven lines of maghribi
script on vellum in brown ink, illuminated
devices between verses, diacritics are in red,
vocalisation in blue and green, witb circular
and tear-shaped devices in the margins.
Reference: Surah adh-Dhaariyaat, 51: part
of verse 5 1 to verse 56.
Islamic period: 5th/6th century AH.
Origin: Muslim Spain
Location: Topkapi Museum, Istanbul,
Turkey.
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And set not up (or worship not) any other ilah (god) along with Allah [Glorified is He (Alone), Exalted above
all that they associate as partners with Him]. Verily, 1 (Muhammad St) am a plain warner to you from Him.
Likewise, no Messenger came to those before them but they said: "A sorcerer or a madman!" Have they (the
people of the past) transmitted this saying to these (Quraysh pagans)? Nay, they are themselves a people
transgressing beyond bounds (in disbelief ) !
So turn away (O Muhammad ft) from them (Quraysh pagans), you are not blameworthy (as you have
conveyed Allah's Message). And remind (by preaching the Qur'an, O Muhammad Sfe), for verily, the reminding
profits the believers.
And 1 (Allah) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should worship Me (Alone).
1 seek not any provision from them (i.e. provision for themselves or for My creatures) nor do 1 ask that they
should feed Mc (i.e. feed themselves or My creatures).
Surah adh-Dhaariyaat (The Winds that Scatter) Si; Si -57.
320 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Andalusian Quran fragment written in elegant maghribi script on white vellum.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 321
Quran manuscripts written between the 13th and 16th centur
1
umsia
15th century CE (p. 353)
The Spread of Islam
Islamic World by 632 CE. This was the year that
Prophet Muhammad &> passed away.
Islamic World by 661 CE, at the end of the period
of the first four Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam.
Islamic World by 750 CE, at the end of the
Ummayyad Caliphate.
Islamic World by 1500 CE.
14th century CE (p. 345).
326 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
l^&^^H^ 1 3th century CE (p. 331). J
Central Asia
ISth century CE (p. 349).
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century CE (p. 357).
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16th century CE (p. 359).
14th century CE (p. 341).
6th century CE (p. 361).
328 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 329
330 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A very large Quran page magnificently written in a bold muhaqqaq style of Arabic script.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 331
Description: A very large Quranic leaf
from the late Abbasid period. Written in
fine muhaqqaq script using black ink with
verse markers illuminated in blue, gold and
red ink.
Reference: Surah aal-Imraan, 3: end of
verse 168 to part of verse 176.
Islamic period: 7th century AH.
Origin: Egypt/Syria.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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And what you suffered (of the disaster) on the day (of the battle of Uhud when) the two armies met, was by the
Leave of Allah, in order that He might test the believers. And that He might test the hypocrites, it was said to
them: "Come, fight in the way of Allah or (at least) defend yourselves." They said: "Had we known that fighting
will take place, we would certainly have followed you." They were that day, nearer to disbelief than to Faith,
saying with their mouths what was not in their hearts. And Allah has full knowledge of what they conceal.
(They are) the ones who said about their killed brethren while they themselves sat (at home): "If only they had
listened to us, they would not have been killed." Say: "Avert death from your own selves, if you speak the truth."
Think not of those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive, with their Lord,
and they have provision.
They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them ot His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have
not yet joined them, but are left behind (not yet martyred) that on them no fear shall come, nor shall they
grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the
reward of the believers.
Surah aal-lmraan (The Family of Imraan) 3: 166-171.
332 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Avery large Quranic leaf from the late Abbasid period written in muhaqqaq script.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 333
3 38 TH E MA( EN1F] CENT QURAN
o
14 th Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 339
Description: A beautiful Qur an
manuscript from the Middle East
handwritten in naskh script. This very well
preserved manuscript lacks ornaments or
design work. Simple open circles in red ink
designate verse endings.
Reference: Surah ar-Ra'd, 13: verse 1 to
part of verse 15.
Islamic period: 8th century AH.
Origin: Middle East,
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful
Alif-Larn-Mim-Ra. These are the Verses of the Book (the Qur'an), and that which has been revealed to you
(Muhammad from your Lord is the truth, but most men believe not.
Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that you can see. Then, He rose above (Istawa) the
Throne. He has subjected the sun and the moon (to continue going round), each running (its course) for a term
appointed. He manages and regulates all affairs; He explains the Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs,
revelations, etc.) in detail, that you may believe with certainty in the Meeting with your Lord.
And it is He Who spread out the earth, and placed therein firm mountains and rivers and of every kind of fruit
He made Zawjain Ithnain (two in pairs - may mean two kinds or it may mean: of two varieties, e.g. black and
white, sweet and sour, small and big). He brings the night as a cover over the day. Verily, in these things, there
are Ayat (proofs, evidences, lessons, signs, etc) for a people who reflect
Surah ar-Rad (The Thunder) 13: 1-3.
340 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Complete Quran manuscript from the Middle East handwritten in naskh script
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 341
Description: Large Qur'an leaf written in
muhaqqaq script with interlinear Persian
translation written in nasta'Iiq. Extensive
use of decorated roundels and gold
marginal ornaments.
Reference: Surah Ibraheem, 14: part of
verse 36 to the end of verse 41.
Islamic period: 8th century AH.
Origin: Persia.
Location; Exhibition Islam Collection.
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342 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
O my Lard! They have indeed led astray many among mankind. But whoso follows me, he verily, is of me. And
whoso disobeys me, still You are indeed Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
O our Lord! I have made some of my offspring to dwell in an uncultivabie valley by Your Sacred House {the
Kaaba at Makkah) in order, O our Lord, that they may perform As-Salat (the prayers). So fill some hearts
among men with love towards them, and (O Allah) provide them with fruits so that they may give thanks.
O our Lord! Certainly, You know what we conceal and what we reveal. Nothing on the earth or in the heaven is
hidden from Allah. All praise and thanks are Allah's, Who has given me in old age Ishmael and Isaac. Verily, my
Lord is indeed the All-Hearer of invocations.
O my Lord! Make me one who performs As-Salat (the prayers), and (also) from my offspring, our Lord! And
accept my invocation. Our Lord! Forgive me and my parents, and (all) the believers on
the Day when the reckoning will he established.
Surah Ibraheem (Abraham) 14: 36-41.
Large Quran leaf written in muhaqqaq script with interlinear Persian translation written in nasta'liq.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 343
346 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 347
Description: Fragile Qur'an page written
in traditional bihari script on dark coloured
hand made paper. Very sparse decoration
with a simple line border. A group of four
red dots on yellow mark the end of each
verse.
Reference: Surah al-Kahf, 18: part of verse
49 to part of verse 5S.
Islamic period: 9th century AH.
Origin: Bihar, India,
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
And the Book (ones Record) will be placed (in the right hand for a believer in the Oneness of Allah, and in
the left hand for a disbeliever in the Oneness of Allah), and you will see the Mujrimun (criminals, polytheists,
sinners), fearful of that which is (recorded) therein. They will say: "Woe to us! What sort of Book is this that
leaves neither a small thing nor a big thing, but has recorded it with numbers!" And they will find all that they
did, placed before them, and your Lord treats no one with injustice.
And (remember) when We said to the angels: "Prostrate yourselves to Adam." So they prostrated themselves
except Iblis (Satan). He was one of the jinn; he disobeyed the Command of his Lord. Will you then take him
{Iblis) and his offspring as protectors and helpers rather than Me while they are enemies to you? What an evil is
the exchange for the Zalimun (polytheists, and wrong doers, etc).
I (Allah) made them (iblis and his offspring) not to witness {nor took their help in) the creation of the heavens
and the earth and not (even) their own creation, nor was I (Allah) to take the misteaders as helpers. And
(remember) the Day He will say: "Call those whom you pretended were partners of Mine." Hi en they will cry to
them, but they will not answer them, and We shall put Maubiq (a barrier) between them.
Surah al-Kahf (The Cave) 18: 49-52.
A fragile Quran page written in traditional bihari script on dark coloured hand made paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 349
Description: Very small Quran written
in traditional andalusian/maghribi script.
Vowels are marked using a range of colours.
The surah header is within a floral frame
written in gold coloured kufic style script.
Three gold medallions adorn the margin.
Reference: Surah al-Fatihah, 1 and Surah al-
Baqarah, 2: verse 1 to the start of verse 15.
Islamic period: 9th century AH.
Origin: North Africa.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
All the praises and thanks be to Allah, the Lord of the Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists).
The Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
The Only Owner (and the Only Rulingjudge) of the Day of Recompense (i.e. the Day of Resurrection)
You (Alone) we worship, and You (Alone) we ask for help (for each and everything).
Guide us to the Straight Way
The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger,
nor of those who went astray.
Surah al-Fatihah (The Opening) 1: 1-7.
Very small Quran written in traditional maghribi script.
THK QURAN THROUGH THE AGES IS l
354 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
o
16™ Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 355
Description: Beautifully decorated Quran
leaf written in black hihari script with
important words such as 'Allah' written
in gold. The surah header text is heavily
decorated. Simple gold coloured rosette
shapes act as verse separators.
Reference : Last part of Surah Saad, 38 and
the start of Surah az-Zumar, 39.
Islamic period: 10th century AH.
Origin: Bihar, India.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
Beautifully decorated Quran leaf written in the special script of Bihar.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 357
Description: Fine example of a Quran leaf
written in bihari script with the top, middle
and bottom lines written in gold ink. The
marginal device has the words thalatul arba
(34) written in it. Simple rosette shaped
markers denote the end of each verse.
Reference: Surah Fussilat, 41: part of verse
8 through to part of verse 12.
Islamic period: 10th century AH.
Origin: Bihar, India.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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Truly, those who believe (in the Oneness of Allah, and in His Messenger Muhammad Si) and do righteous
good deeds, for them will be an endless reward that will never stop (i.e. Paradise).
Say (O Muhammad "Do you verily disbelieve in Him Who created the earth in two Days? And you set up
rivals (in worship) with Him? That is the Lord of the Alamin (mankind, jinn and all that exists)."
He placed therein (i.e. the earth) firm mountains from above it, and He blessed it, and measured therein its
sustenance (for its dwellers) in four Days equal for all those who ask (about its creation).
Then He rose over (Istawa) towards the heaven when it was smoke, and said to it and to the earth: "Come both
of you willingly or unwillingly." They both said: "We come willingly."
Then He: completed and finished their creation (.is) seven heavens in two Days and He made in each heaven its
affair. And We adorned the nearest (lowest) heaven with lamps (stars) to be an adornment as well as to guard.
Such is the Decree of the Al l-Mighty, die All-Knower.
358 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Surah Fussilat (They are Explained in Detail) 41: 8-12.
Impressive example of a 400 year old Quran leaf written in bihari script.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 359
Quran manuscripts written between the 17th and 20th centuries CE.
Afghanistan
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19th century CE (p. 383).
20th century CE (p. '395).
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17th century CE (p. 369).
The Spread of Islam
Islamic World by 632 CE. This was the year that
Prophet Muhammad passed away.
Islamic World by 66 1 CE, at the end of the period
of the first four Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam.
Islamic World by 750 CE, at the end of the
Ummayyad Caliphate.
Islamic World by 1 500 CE.
20th century CE (p. 393).
18th century CE(p.379).
362 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
17th Century CE (p. 371).
17th Century CE (p. 367).
18th Century CE (p. 375).
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19th Century CE (p. 385).
18th Century CE (p. 377).
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20th Century CE (p. 391 ).
19th Century CE (p. 387).
364 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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Surah Yusuf"( Joseph) 12: 1-6.
366 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A Quran written in black ink using naskh script on handmade paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 367
Description: A large Qur an manuscript
decorated throughout w
ith flora! designs
and marginal devices in
local colour
formations of red and gr
een. Written using
a local variant of the Kits
di script on thick
hand made paper.
Reference: Surah al-Anbiyaa, 2 1 ; verses
1 to 22.
Islamic period: 1 1th century AH.
Origin: Dagestan.
Location: Exhibition Islam collection.
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In the Name of AJIah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Draws near for mankind their reckoning, while they turn away in heedlessness. Comes not to them an
admonition from their Lord as a recent Revelation but they listen to it while they play. With then heai ts
occupied (. witli evil things). Those who do wrong, conceal their private counsels, (saying): "Is this
(Muhammad j£) more than a human being like you? Will you submit to magic while you see it?" He
(Muhammad Sfc) said: "My Lord knows (every) word (spoken) in the heavens and on earth. And He
is the All-Hearer, the All-Knower." Nay, they say:" These (Revelations of the Quran which are inspired
to Muhammad Si;) are mixed up false dreams! Nay, he has invented it! Nay, he is a poet! Let him then
bring us an Ayah (sign as a proof) like the ones that the former (Prophets) were sent (with)!"
Not one of the towns (populations), of those which We destroyed, believed before them (though We sent
them signs); will they then believe? And We sent not before you (O Muhammad s) but men to
whom We revealed. So ask the people of the Reminder if you do not know.
Surah al-Anbiyaa (Hie Prophets) 21 : 1-7.
370 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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A large 300 year old Qur an from the Dagestan region written using a local variant of the naskh script on thick paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 37 1
372 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 373
Description: A rare Qur'an leaf from
Beijing in China handwritten in a local
variant of naskh known as sitii script
on handmade paper. The borders are
composed of simple lines and there is some
use of red ink within the text as well.
Reference: Surah al-Nahl, 16: part of verse
1 22 to part of verse 1 24.
Islamic period: 12th century AH.
Origin: Beijing, China.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
Verily, Abraham was an Ummah (a leader having all the good righteous qualities, or a nation), obedient to Allah,
Hanif (i.e. to worship none but Allah), and he was not one of those who were Al-Mushrikun (disbelievers
in the Oneness of Allah), (He was) thankful for His (Allah's) Favours. He (Allah) chose him
(as an intimate friend) and guided him to a Straight Path (Islamic Monotheism).
And We gave him good in this world, and in the Hereafter he shall be of the righteous. Then, We have
sent the Revelation to you (O Muhammad -St): "Follow the religion of Abraham Hanif
(Islamic Monotheism) and he was not of those who ascribe partners to Allah.
The Sabbath was only prescribed for those who differed concerning it, and verily, your Lord will judge between
them on the Day of Resurrection about that wherein they used to differ. (O Muhammad &>) Invite (mankind)
to the way of your Lord (i.e. Islam) with wisdom (i.e. with the Divine Revelation and the Qur'an) and fair
preaching, and argue with them in a way that is better. Truly, your Lord knows best who has gone
astray from His path, and He is the Best Knower of those who are guided.
374 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A rare Quran leaf from Beijing in China handwritten in sini script on handmade paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 375
Description: Highly decorated portion
of a Quran, handwritten in naskh script
on polished paper. Extensive use of pure
gold ink and royal blue colour throughout.
Elegantly presented with floral geometric
design work using blue and gold inlay.
Reference: Surah al-Falaq, 113 and Surah
an-Naas, 114.
Islamic period: 12 century AH.
Origin: Persia.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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Say: "I seek refuge with (Allah) the Lord of mankind, The King of mankind - Hie Hah (God) of mankind, From
the evil of the whisperer (devil who whispers evil in the hearts of men) who withdraws (from his whispering
in one's heart after one remembers Allah). Who whispers in the breasts of mankind.
Of jinn and men."
Surah an-Naas (Mankind) 1 14.
In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Say: "I seek refuge with (Allah), the Lord of the daybreak, From the evil of what He has created, And from
the evil of the darkening (night) as it comes with its darkness; (or the moon as it sets or goes away),
And from the evil of those who practise witchcraft when they blow in the knots,
And from the evil of the envier when he envies."
Surah al-Falaq (The Daybreak) 1 13.
In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Li
Magnificently decorated portion of a Quran, handwritten in naskh script on polished paper.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 377
380 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
o
19™ Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 38 1
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 1-5.
382 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Incipit pages from a complete handwritten Quran originating from the Ottoman Empire.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 383
Description: A complete Quran written
in a variant of naskh script. The marginal
device on the page has been decorated
with a local style. Saffron coloured circular
markers denote verse endings.
Reference: Surah ar-Ra'd, 13 (last few
verses) and the start of Surah Ibraheem, 14.
Islamic period : 1 3th century AH.
Origin: Far East, most probably
Indonesian.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Alif-Lam-Ra. (Tliis is) a Book which We have revealed to you (O Muhammad ■:<) in order that you might lead
mankind out of darkness (of disbelief and polytheism) into light (of belief in the Oneness of Allah and Islamic
Monotheism) by their Lord's Leave to the path of the All Mighty, the Owner of all praise.
Allah to Whom belongs all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth! And woe to the disbelievers from a
severe torment. Those who prefer the life of this world to the Hereafter, and hinder (men) from the path ot Allah
(i.e. Islam) and seek crookedness therein - they are far astray. And We sent not a Messenger except with the
language of his people, in order that he might make (the Message) clear for them. Then Allah misleads whom
He wills and guides whom He wills. And He is the All- Mighty, the All-Wise.
And indeed We sent Musa (Moses) with Our Ayat (signs, proofs, and evidences) (saying): "Bring out your
people from darkness into light, and remind them of the Blessings of Allah. Truly, therein are Ayat (evidences,
proofs and signs) for every patient, thankful (person)."
386 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A complete Quran written in a variant of naskh script from the Far East.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 387
588 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
I—
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20
TH
Century CE
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 389
Description: A Quran date marked 1926
CE printed in naskh style script. There are
1 1 lines of large Arabic text per page with
two lines of interlinear Urdu translation
in nasta'liq in between, with additional
commentary in the margins.
Reference: Surah Yusuf, 12 (last few
verses) and the start of Surah ar-Ra'd, 13.
Islamic period: 14th century AH.
Origin: Indian subcontinent.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Alif-Lam-Mim-Ra. These are the Verses of the Book (the Quran), and that which has been revealed to you
(Muhammad fie) from your Lord is the truth, but most men believe not. Allah is He Who raised the heavens
without any pillars that you can see. Then, He rose above (Istawa) the Throne. He has set the sun and the moon
(on their courses) for a term appointed. He manages and regulates all affairs; He explains the Ayat (verses,
lessons, signs, revelations etc. ) in detail, that you may believe with certainty in the Meeting with your Lord. And
it is He Who spread out the earth, and placed therein hrm mountains and rivers and of every kind of fruit He
made things in pairs. He brings the night as a cover over the day. Verily, in these things,
there are verses for a people who reflect.
And in the earth are neighbouring tracts, and gardens of vines, and green crops (fields), and date palms, growing
into two or three from a single stem root, or otherwise (one stem root for every palm), watered with the same
water; yet some of them We make more excellent than others to eat. Verily, in these things there are Ayat
(evidences, signs) for the people who understand.
Surah ar-Rad (The Thunder) 13: 1-4.
390 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 391
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Description: A fine example of a machine
printed Quran produced in Egypt, with
simple surah separators and open circles to
mark verse endings. The Quran would have
been printed from prepared printing blocks
such as those shown on pages 400 and 401 .
Reference: Surah al-Munaafiqoon, 63 and
the start of Surah at-Taghaabun, 64.
Islamic period: 14th century AH.
Origin: Egypt.
Location: Exhibition Islam Collection.
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In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful
And when it is said to them: "Gome, so that the Messenger of Allah may ask forgiveness from Allah for you,"
they twist their heads, and you would see them turning away their faces in pride. It is equal to them whether you
(Muhammad ■ : :) ask forgiveness or ask not forgiveness for them, Allah will never forgive them. Verily, Allah
guides not the people who are the Fasiqun (rehellious, disobedient to Allah), lliey are the ones who say: "Spend
not on those who are with Allah's Messenger , until they desert him." And to Allah belong the treasures of the
heavens and the earth, but the hypocrites comprehend not.
They (hypocrites) say: "II we return to Al-Madinah, indeed the more honourable (Abdullah ibn Ubai ibn
Salul, the chief of hypocrites at Al-Madinah) will expel therefrom the meaner (i.e. Allah's Messenger )." But
honour, power and glory belong to Allah, and to I lis Messenger ( Muhammad •".), and to the believers, but
the hypocrites know not. O you who believe! Let not your properties or your children divert you from the
remembrance of Allah. And whosoever does that, then they are the losers.
392 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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A fine example of a Quran printed in Egypt with simple surah separators and open circles to mark verse endings.
THE QURAN THROUGH THE AGES 393
The Qur an in Print
Most of the Qur'ans in use today are printed copies based
on the standard reference Quran commissioned by Cal-
iph Uthman ibn Affan as described previously. There are
many prints, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive
or inexpensive, yet they all retain the same Arabic text that
was revealed to Prophet Muhammad r - .. Some are bilin-
gual forms with the Arabic on one side and a translation
of the meaning into another language on the other. The
Quran is also available in many different sizes. Most are
of a reasonable book size, but there exist extremely large
format Qur'ans usually for display purposes and very
small Qur'ans that are often carried when travelling, 'the
complete Qur 'an has also been laser etched onto business
card sized sheets of plastic.
As early as the 1 Oth century the Quran was being printed
from carved wooden blocks using one block per page. The
pattern of writing and printing of the Quran was further
standardised when the printing press with movable type
was first used in Europe. The oldest surviving Qur 'an using
this movable type of press was printed in Venice between
1537 and 1538 CE. In 1694 CE, a Qur 'an was printed
by Abraham Hinkellmann in Hamburg, Germany, but it
contained major printing errors on almost every page.
The first Qur an printed by Muslims was in St Petersburg,
Russia, in 1787 CE. These were followed by further
editions from Kazan ( 1828 CE), Persia (1833 CE), Cairo
( 1890 CE), as well as Istanbul (1877 CE). An Egyptian
standardised version of the Quranic text was first printed
in Cairo in 1925 under supervision of scholars from
al-Azhar University. 1 Qur'ans were also being widely
printed in Turkey that combined handwritten beautifully
illuminated text with modern offset printing technology.
The Quran has also been printed in Arabic braille as
well as a translation of the meaning in English Braille. A
very well-known and common print of the Quran is the
Madinah mushaf, This mushaj adopts the hajs qiraa, whi ch
is the most common mode of recitation in the Islamic
World. Another mode of recitation is known as warsh.
This style of recitation is common to much of Morocco,
Tunisia, Sudan, Nigeria and Malaysia. Whereas, almost
all of the printed copies of the Qur'an today adopt the
naskh style of script, those that adopt the warsh qiraa are
typically printed in maghribi style script, which can be
difficult to read for the untrained eye. For example, the
letter qaf is usually written with two dots above it, however
in maghribi script there is only one dot, whereas the letter
faa has one dot below it rather than above as in the naskh
script. The other less common modes are Qaloon (Libya,
Tunisia and parts of Qatar). ad-Doree (parts of Sudan
and West Africa) and Ibn 'Amir (parts of Yemen). A full
explanation of the different modes of Quranic recitation
can be found in 'An Introduction to the Sciences of the
Q, » 2
ur aan,
A final point to note here is that although over the
centuries Muslims have tended to beautify and highly
decorate Quranic manuscripts (and mosques), this was
not necessarily a practice that Prophet Muhammad &
encouraged. On the contrary there is even a saying of his
that seems to discourage this;
" When you decorate your mosques, and beautify your
mushaf 5, then destruction will be upon you!" 3
Opposite
Early 20th century Qur'an,
machine printed in the
Ottoman Empire with
extensive decoration similar
to many late hand written
manuscripts. The
page is open at the start of
Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer,
2). The text does not have
any verse numbering, small
flower shapes have been used
as verse separators.
THE QURAN IN PRINT 397
Above
Quran sections {juz') from a late 19th century 30 volume Qur'an printed in the Middle East. The start of Surah an-Noor (The Light, 24) is shown
on the right hand page.
Opposite
Opening pages from an Ottoman Qur'an printed during the early part of the 20th century.
398 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Above and opposite
Early 20th century Ottoman Qur'ans extensively decorated in gold colour. Each page is numbered and is set within a multi-lined border. Surah headers
are within a traditional floral design and small floral devices act as verse numbers. Some of the pages also have marginal devices. The top image has the end
of Surah al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage, 22) and the start of Surah al-Muminoon (The Believers, 23). The lower image shows Surahs al-'Asr (The Time, 103), al-
Humazah (The Slanderer, 104), al-Feel (The Elephant, 105), Quraysh (106), al-Maa'oon (The Small Kindnesses, 107), al-Kawthar (A River in Paradise,
108) and the start of Surah al-Kaatiroon (The Disbelievers, 109). The image on the opposite page shows the start of Surah al-Alaq (The Clot, 96).
THE QURAN IN PRINT 403
Printed Qur'an from the
1930s with pages open on
Surah's al-Isra (The Night
Journey, 17) and al-Kahf
(The Cave, 18). Mass
printing of Qur'ans only
really started after the 1850's,
first in Egypt and then
in Turkey. The verses are
numbered in this Qur'an and
there is a marginal device in
the upper left hand margin,
functionally placed to inform
the reader to prostrate during
recitation.
404 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN IN PRINT 405
An example of an early 20 th
century Quran printed in
the Ottoman empire. The
pages are numbered but note
the lack of verse numbers
with a small floral motif used
instead (Surah Luqmaan 31:
Ml).
406 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN IN PRINT 407
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A Quran printed in
Tartarstan by Qazan
University (Asyastkoy Press)
in 1848 CE, This unique
Quran has 482 pages and
is fully leather bound. The
pages are numbered but there
is no verse numbering. There
is extensive commentary
in the margins. The right
hand page has the last part
of Surah al-Anbiyaa (The
Prophets, 21 ) and the
left hand side shows the
start of Surah al-Hajj (The
Pilgrimage, 22).
414 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE QURAN L\ PRINT 415
Mid-20th century printed
Quran from the Indian
Subcontinent (personal copy
of the late Rashida Begum
AJ am). There are 12 lines
of large black ttcakh script
against an orange background
with white panels containing
an Urdu translation.
The Quran also features
additional commentary in
the margins. The right hand
page has the starting of Surah
al-AVaaf (The Heights, 7).
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THE QURAN IN PRINT 421
Above
Complete leather hound Quran printed in Tartarstan dated 1917 CE. The pages are open on the last part of Surah az-Zumar (The Groups, 39)
and the start of Surah Ghaafir (The Forgiver, 40).
Opposite page
16th century Quran leaf written in classical bihari script from India. The word Allah has been highlighted in gold throughout. The surah header
text is outlined in white and written in gold thuluth within gold cartouches set within a band of strongly coloured panels. A large gold roundel
with the letter ayn in white within red and blue concentric circles is visible in the upper left margin and indicates the end of a section. The page
shows the start of Surah ar-Room (The Romans, 30).
THE QURAN GALLERY 423
Decorative centre pages from a Qur an
written in Afghanistan dating back to
the late 18th century.
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Individual verse endings are marked by
simple circles. The right hand page shows
the start of Surah Qaf, 50.
424 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN GALLERY | AFGHANISTAN 425
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A complete 18th century Quran from the
Horn of Africa, most likely Ethiopia.
There are 17 lines of a variant sahrawi style
Arabic script on each page, written
in a compact format by a fine hand.
Verse endings are simply marked
by three red dots.
426 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts with the last few verses of
Surah Faatir, 3S (The Originator of Creation).
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Some punctuation marks have been
highlighted in red ink.
The first word of the next page is repeated
here to aid easy recitation.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I AFRICAN HORN 427
Heavy staining at the corners due to
continuous use of the Quran over the years.
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428 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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THE QURAN GALLERY ! AFRICAN SAHARA 429
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Complete Quran from the Saharan
region of Africa
The Quran is bound in a coarse leather cover.
Some animal fur is visible in the
bottom left corner.
Written on very thick machine made paper.
There is heavy staining on the corner of each
page due to extensive use over the years.
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430 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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The names of the /us ' and the surah are simply
written on the top corner of every page.
A small dark circle in red ink indicates
the end of each verse.
Surah headers are written in red ink. This page
has the start of Surah TaaHaa, 20. The header
also indicates that the surah was revealed in
Makkah and has 135 verses.
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Exceptionally rare example of a Quran
bifolium written on vellum from Andalusia
(Muslim Spain), 12th century.
Tliere are five lines of text per page written in
large nmghribi script in brown ink which is
very typical of many Spanish Qur'ans.
Gold coloured shell and floret with red and
blue pointing designate the end of the verse.
The pages show signs of water damage in a
number of places.
438 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts with part of verse 27 from
Surah an-Najm, 53 (The Star) and
ends on part of verse 30.
Vowel markings have been penned in
red and green ink.
Gold coloured shell shaped marker
separates verses.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I ANDALUSIA 439
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A Quran bifolium written on vellum from
Andalusia (Muslim Spain),
early 1 3th century.
There are six lines of text to the page written
in large maghribi script using dark ink which
is very typical of Spanish Qur'ans.
Gold coloured shell and floret shaped
markers designate the end ot a verse.
The pages show signs of water damage in a
number of places. There is also evidence
of some worm holes.
440 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN GALLERY I ANDALUSIA 441
Finely decorated end pages of the sixth
juz' from a 17th century 30 volume Quran
written in China (Location: British Library),
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The lantern motif with a diamond at the
centre accommodates just three lines of text
and is quite typical of large
Chinese Qur'ans.
The Arabic text is written in a variation of
muhaqqaq script known as siiti script that
shows clear influence from Chinese art.
The structure of the lantern motif is outlined
in gold with use of blue, red and green
ink for the internal decoration.
442 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The text is the end of verse 82 from Surah
al-Maaidah, 5 (Hie Table spread with Food).
The last word sadaqa is not part of the verse
but most probably is a shortened form of
sadaqcillaahul adheem (Allah says the Truth).
Vocalisation and body text is written in black
ink with only minimal use of red.
Sini script is distinguished by its relatively
thin upstrokes and long terminals that
project below the line.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I CHINA 443
Exquisitely illuminated pages from a 17th
century thirty volume Quran
written in China.
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The central text panel is surrounded by a
lantern type structure of finely ruled lines.
Local flora and vegetation have inspired the
type of decoration used in the upper panel.
Decorative gold and green coloured floral
palmette protrudes into the margin.
Each page has only three lines of large text
written in sad script with gold coloured ink.
The format is typical ot many
Chinese Qur'ans.
Tlie pages have become heavily stained and
worn at the corners.
444 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The decorative features on both pages are
drawn as mirror images of each other.
The page starts with the first few words of the
24th juz ' (verse 32 and part of 33 from Surah
az-Zumar, 39 (The Groups).
Vocalisation and body text is written in black
ink, with only minimal use of red.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I CHINA 445
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A Quran written in Dagestan during
the early 1 Xth century.
The text is written in a large bold tmslch .style
within a simply designed page.
There are IS lines of text per page written on
thick paper enclosed within a framework
of finely ruled lines.
These two words have been written in the
margin as they were initially left out by
mistake by the scribe.
The word aslnira (ten) written with red ink in
the margin indicates the end ot ten verses.
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460 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts with Surah at-Tawbah, 9 (The
Repentance) verse 93 and continues through
to the other page ending halfway through
verse 101.
A marginal ornament drawn in a local style
indicates the start of the 1 1th juz'. The first
word of the new section has been
crudely highlighted.
The Quran has undergone some major repair
work on a number of pages.
The next word in the verse is written at the
bottom of the page to aid smooth recitation.
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THE QURAN GALLERY 1 CAUCASUS 461
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The first part of a two volume Quran copied
in Dagestan, 18th century.
Only one of the opening pages is decorated
with red and green tloral design work.
The letter seen has been left out by mistake
from the word wa-minnn-naiisi-man, (and
there are people who...) but has been
added later in the margin.
Heavy usage of the Qur'an over time has
resulted in wear and staining at the corners.
462 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
THE QURAN GALLERY I CAUCASUS 463
Conventionally decorated opening pages
from a very fragile Indian Qur'an written
during the 17th century.
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Most of the pages are damaged beyond repair
and in a very delicate and fragile condition.
The decoration style is typical of many
Mughal palace Qur'ans from this era, with
central hasp shapes projecting
into the margin.
466 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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Surah Fatihah, I (The Opening) is written on
the right hand page, with the start of Surah al-
Baqarah, 2 (The Heifer) on the opposite page.
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The binding has come loose over time
and is now beyond repair.
THE QURAN GALLERY I INDIA 467
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A very large 17th century Quran from the
late Mughal period of Islamic rule in India.
The size and elegance of this Qur'an indicates
that it probably belonged to a mosque or was
owned by a wealthy family.
Quranic text and vowel marks are written in
large black naskh script by a very
skilled calligrapher.
The surah header calligraphy indicates the
start of Surah al-Ankaboot (The Spider, 29)
and that it was revealed in Makkah.
The hard back cover has been covered with
cloth at a more recent date.
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468 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN GALLERY I INDIA 469
An unusual Quran section with many lines
per page from 1 8th century India.
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The word ashara (ten) in the margin indicates
the first ten verses ol the surah.
Written in a compact naskh script with some
textual markings highlighted in red ink.
The text is enclosed within a large
single lined rectangular compartment
Identical staining on each page shows where
readers have turned the pages over the years.
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482 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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The word sajdah written in red is functionally
placed in the margin to instruct the reader to
prostrate at this point during recitation.
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The next word in the verse is written at the
bottom of the page to aid smooth recitation.
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Surah al-Israa, 17 (The Journey by Night).
Header panel indicates the start of Surah
al-Kahf, 1 8 (The Cave) written in red ink.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I INDIA 483
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Late 18th to early 19th century
Indonesian Qur'an.
Text is written in a large cursive hand on
water marked machine made paper, most
likely imported from Europe.
Open red circles without numbers are used to
mark the end of each verse.
Surah title text is in red within a simply
ruled lined panel.
The page is divided into a number of panels
consisting of simple lines.
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484 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts with Surah al-'Asr, 103 (The
Time) and continues with Surah al-Humazah,
104 (The Slanderer); Surah al-Feel, 105 (The
Elephant); Surah Quraysh, 106;
Surah al-Maabon, 107 (The Small
Kindnesses); Surah al-Kawthar, 108 (A River
in Paradise) and Surah al-Kaafiroon, 109
(The Disbelievers).
The Bistmllali (In the Name of Allah) text is
elongated across the whole width
of the text panel.
THE QURAN GALLERY I INDONESIA 485
Decorative end pages from a South East Asian
Quran, early 19th century.
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The text compartment is split into three
sections; the header and footer panels and
a central text compartment.
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Traditional decorative floral design work
surrounds the text compartment. A lattice
framework encloses the central text panel.
486 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Surah al-Falaq, 113 (Hie Daybreak) is written
on the right hand page with Surah an-Naas,
1 14 (Mankind) opposite.
The page seems to have been repaired at
some point in time and overlaid upon a page
containing previous text that is just
visible in the centre.
Surah information panels are written in an
unvocalised script in white upon
a red background.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I INDONESIA 487
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18th century South East Asian Quran most
likely from the Java region.
Hie text is neatly written in a simple black
naskh/jawi script on machine made paper.
Hie calligrapher has used an acidic ink that
has caused it to bleed through the page.
Heavy staining at the corners where readers
have turned the pages over the years.
488 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts on Surah al-Mu'minoon, 23
(The Believers).
The text written sideways, in the margin, in
red, indicates the start of the eighteenth juz'.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I INDONESIA 489
Enlarged view of a rare miniature Quran
printed in Kashmir, dated 1893.
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The Quran pages are numbered and
octagonal in shape.
The Quranic text has been printed within a
triple line octagonal border.
This manuscript is unusual as there is
no vocalisation and the text is written in a
minute style of nasal script known
Asghuhar (dust).
The manuscript is bound with a octagonal
leather hardback cover. Its small size would
suggest that it was most likely
used during travel.
490 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page starts part of the way through Surah
al-Huinazah, 104 (The Slanderer) through to
part of Surah an-Nasr, 1 10 (The Help)
on the opposite page.
The surah header text is not differentiated
from the main body of the text. Verses are
separated by simple circular shapes.
The BiSmiUah (In the Name of Allah) text is
printed with an elongated letter seen.
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THE QURAN GALLERY KASHMIR 491
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Beautifully written double pages from a
Quran dated 1036 CE (427 AH) from Iraq
(British Library, London).
Compactly written in an archaic version of
naskh script on hand made light
brown coloured paper.
Small gold roundels within the text denote
the end of each verse. The verse markers are
missing in places, for example at the
start of the surah.
The name of the Surah (Saad, 38)
is written in a decorated header panel using
kujic script with a white outline. The last word
of the previous surah is incorporated
within the header.
Large overlapping roundels inscribed with
kujic text indicate the end of every tenth verse.
A sajdiih marginal device with an arabesque
design is functionally placed to inform the
reader to prostrate at the end
of the 24th verse.
492 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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The page shows the start of the 20th verse
from Surah as-Saaffaat
(Those Ranged in Ranks, 37).
Small palmettes in the text margin, in the
shape of the letter ha, indicate the
end of every fifth verse.
st word of the following page is written
n the bottom margin to aid recitation.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I MIDDLE EAST 493
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A very large 1 2th century Quran from the
Pre-Mamluk late Abbasid period.
Written on large sheets of high quality
thick hand made paper.
This magnificent Quran consists of 377 pages
and is written in a majestic archaic
muhaqqaq style of Arabic script.
Illuminated floral shapes mark the
end of individual verses.
The acidic nature of the ink has caused the
marginal device on the reverse
side to show through.
494 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page shows the end of the 26th verse
from Surah an-Noor, 24 (The Light) through
to the start of verse 34 on the opposite page.
Marginal device with the word ashara written
in gold kufic within blue and gold concentric
circles denotes the end of ten verses.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I MIDDLE EAST 495
Very ornate double pages from the 1 4th
century Mamluk Quran of Sultan Faraj
ibn Barquq (British Library).
V 1
The chapter header indicates the start of
Surah al-Anfaal, 8 (The Spoils of War) and
is written in monumental kujic in white within
an ornate rectangular panel.
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The left hand page has an almond shaped
feature with the word nisfhizb meaning half
(of the) quarter, in white kufic, marking the
beginning of one half of the sixty parts into
which this Qur'an is divided.
Written in a refined rayhani (literally, sweet
basil) script. Like tiaskh, rayhani is a small
script (its larger counterpart is muhaqqaq)
written with serifs on alif and laam, looped
letters that are open, as well as long tails
and rounded bowls.
The text is written in a continuous format
without any great separation between verses.
Large coloured roundels above the
line mark verse endings.
L A
498 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Hie page contains the last part of Surah al-
Araaf, 7 (The Heights) starting with the last
two words of verse 204.
ILK i^?>/V
A large pointed roundel forms a decorative
marginal ornament
Some of the vowel markings have been
written in red ink.
The instruction for the reader to prostrate
during recitation is indicated by the word
sajdah, written in blue kufic script and set
within an interesting architectural feature.
THE QURAN GALLERY II MIDDLE EAST 499
r
A small 20th century Quran scroll measuring
4.4 cm in width with a length of 740 cm.
: 1
The scroll contains the complete Quranic
text enclosed between red parallel lines.
L A
Surah Fatihah (The Opening, 1 ) and the
start of Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer, 2) are
written within shield shaped compartments.
The Quranic text is written in a cursive hand
without any vowel markings.
L A
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The scroll was most likely used by a traveller
and could be kept rolled up in
a leather pouch.
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508 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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The end of the scroll showing Surah al-Masad,
1 1 1 (The Palm Fibre) through to Surah
an-Naas, 1 14 (Manldnd).
Following convention the scroll also contains
an end prayer to be recited after completing
the recitation of the Quran.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I MIDDLE EAST 509
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2
A Quran bifolium from the North African
region, 9th century.
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2
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The text is written in western kufic script using
brown ink and is vocalised
throughout in red.
There are thirteen lines of text on this page
written on light coloured vellum.
510 TH E MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Staining at the edges appears to be due to
the affects of water damage.
Large decorated roundels are used to
sepai , i to individual verses.
The page starts with part of verse 41 from
Surah Baqarah, 2 (The Heifer) and ends
partway through verse 54 on the word
fataaba; the ba from the end of the word
is written on the following page. Splitting
words was the norm with kufic scripts but was
discontinued with the adoption
of cursive scripts.
A gold marker in the shape of a shell indicates
the start of a new hizb division.
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THE QURAN GALLERY I NORTH AFRICA 511
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A complete 1 4th century North African
Quran written in miighribi script.
Maghribi script is written in black ink and
vocalised throughout with green
and saffron markings.
The word hizb written in ornamental knjic in
white upon blue ground and enclosed within
concentric circles indicates the
end of a section.
The Qur'an is bound in a thick leather case
with design work embossed in gold.
Floral verse markers coloured in gold
separate individual verses.
514 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
THE QURAN GALLERY I NORTH AFRICA 515
A small section containing only Surah
Yaaseen, 36, copied in the Ottoman empire,
18th century.
There are eleven tines of text per page copied
in naskh script in Mack ink on
very thick paper.
The small size and light leather binding of this
manuscript indicates that it was most
likely carried for use during travel.
The text is enclosed within a large
rectangular compartment.
The Qur'an has been exposed to water
damage as the ink has smudged
in a number of places.
522 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
A large semicircular panel with floral design
work in a number of colours is placed
above the surah header text.
The surah header panel is written in red ink
and gives the name of the surah, Yaseen, 36,
citing the fact that it was revealed in Makkah
and the number of verses.
Individual verses are separated by large
gold coloured circles.
The first word of the following page is written
in the lower margin as an aid to
continuous recitation.
2
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THE QURAN GALLERY I OTTOMAN 523
Decorative opening pages from a Qur'an
originating in the Ottoman Empire,
1 9th century.
Both pages are dominated by bright floral
design work using a variety of colours.
The details of the surah are written in a basic
naskli script in red without vowels.
This page has the start of Surah al-Baqarah, 2
(The Heifer) written in naskh script.
Single verse divisions are indicated simply
by a group three red symbols.
In some places the red symbols are used
in a repetitive pattern and seem to serve a
decorative rather than a functional purpose.
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524 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
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Opening page of the Qur'an with the whole of
Surah al-Fatihah, 1 (The Opening)
written in naskh.
The text is enclosed within a thick double
lined red and black frame filled with
gold and black edging.
Note that the word aameen is not part of the
Qur'an but is sometimes included at the
end of the Surah al-Fatihah.
The word bismi from the following page
is written in the lower margin as an
aid to continuous recitation.
V
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THE QUR'AN GALLERY I OTTOMAN 525
U
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A Quran bifolium originating in Persia
written during the 14th century.
There are nine lines of Quranic text per page
written in large muhaqqaq script.
The pages are heavily stained most likely due
to the effects of water.
A pear shaped marginal ornament
shows every tenth verse.
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Mi
532 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The page has the last part of Surah al-
Ankaboot, 29 (The Spider) and the start of
Surah ar-Room, 30 (The Romans) ending
on part of verse 16 of the latter
on the other page.
Surah headers are written in gold with some
of the vowel marks highlighted in blue.
X
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THE QURAN GALLERY I PERSIA 533
Beautifully decorated 16th century Quran
from Persia or possibly Iraq.
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2
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P
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Every page is set within an orange and gold
coloured multi-line frame.
Quranic text is written in an elegant ruykani
script, with coloured circles separating
individual verses.
The surah header text is embellished in white
upon gold foliate work and indicates the start
of Surah al-Ma'aarij, 70 (The Ways of Ascent).
534 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
This page has text from Surah al-Haaqqah, 69
(The Inevitable) starting half way
through verse 17.
L
An interesting point to note here is how the
scribe h.is mistakenly left out .1 few verses
( 19-24) and then made the correction by
writing sideways in the extended text frame.
This type of occurrence highlights how
Qurans would always be thoroughly checked
for mistakes upon completion.
2
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H
Z
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Tlie first word of the following page is
functionally repeated beneath the text
compartment to aid smooth recitation.
THE QURAN GALLERY I PERSIA 535
1
Magnificent double pages from a 1 7th
century Qur an from Persia written in naskh.
(Location: British Library).
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—
U
p
H
Z
w
U
X
H
Alternating blue and gold marginal medal-
lions indicate every fiftb and tenth verse.
"77
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: * *
"Si
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Hie word kluwisii (five) is written in tlutluth
script after every five verses in gold ink within
a blue medallion,
The word ashara (ten) indicates every ten
verses in blue ink within a gold
coloured medallion.
536 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Verse endings are marked using a simple
circular design in blue and gold.
THE QURAN GALLERY I PERSIA 537
'rinted Quran from Kazan, Turkestan,
dated 1S60CE.
The text is printed in a clear script within a
rectangular lined border.
Details of the start of the next surah, al-A'raaf,
7 (The Heights) are given either side of the
last verse of the previous surah.
Individual verses are separated by
simple floral shapes.
544 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Arabic numerals indicate the page iuimt>er in
the top coiner of the page.
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The Quran is bound within a hard
dark red leather cover.
Hie right hand page contains the last few
verses of Surah al-An'aam, 6 (Tlie Cattle).
P
H
DC
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5
H
u
H
CO
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Vowel markings; have been printed in a
straight line, which is a break with hand
written convention.
THE QURAN GALLERY I TURKESTAN 545
Qur an Binding and Markers
I
Previous pages
Detail view of the first few
verses from Surah al-Baqarah
(The Heifer, 2), written in
large tnulmqqaij style script,
late 16th to early 17th
century, Uzbekistan.
Left
A series of dark brown leather
bound Qur'an volumes from
a set of thirty, North Africa,
1 8th century.
Opposite page
Black leather covered Qur'an
with gold coloured decorative
work embossed on the front,
back and the flap, China, 17th
century.
QURAN BINDING AND iVlARKERS 549
1 8th century Ottoman Quran
section bound in a dark leather
cover with a Hap.
550 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Quran covered in dark brown
leather with a flap from the
African Horn region written in
a compact sahrawi 'script, 1 8th
century. The binding is heavily
damaged and the Quran is
loosely held together.
Small dark red leather
covered Quran with a flap.
The Qur'an is embossed with
an emblem in the centre,
North African, 17th century.
A Qur'an commentary
covered with tan coloured
leather and embossed with
green emblems, 1 7th century.
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS 551
View of the spine of an
18th century Indonesian
Quran. Unusually covered
in an intricately patterned
traditional hand-woven
songket fabric.
>Id this late
from
At over 700 years ol
13th century Qiir'a
Syria or possibly Egypt has
been rebound in dark browi
leather and embossed with
gold emblems.
18th century miskh Qur'an
leather bound showing
heavy damage and wear.
Dark red leather bound
Qur'an section embossed
with a central emblem.
Ottoman, 17th century.
552 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
1 8th century Indonesian
Quran missing the covers.
The multiple binding strings
are visible on the spine.
A very well preserved 1000
year old Qur an written in
small archaic naskh from
Syria or Iraq. Rebound with
a dark leather cover and
embossed with floral designs
i
Dark leather covered Ottoman
Quran, i8th century. The cover
has become heavily damaged
and worn and is in quite a
brittle state.
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS 553
S54 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Embossed dark red/brown
leather covered Quran from
China, 17th century.
The first translation into the
English Language was by
Alexander Ross in 1 648 from
the French translation of Du
Ryer. He did not know Arabic
and was not thoroughly
proficient in French which
would explain the poor
quality of the translation.
The first translation of the meanings of the Quran into a European language was the Latin translation made by Robertus Ketenensis and Hermannus
Dalmatia at the behest of Peter the Venerable, the president of the Cluny Monastery in France in 1143 CE. After 500 years of private circulation
within the church, it was finally published in Basel, Switzerland in 1543 CE. Early translations were done in Latin and German. Andre Du Ryer, who
had been the French Consul in Egypt and had considerable knowledge of both the Turkish and Arabic languages, first translated the Quran into
French. This was printed in Paris in 1 647. The version was inaccurate and contained frequent transpositions, omissions, and even additions. In 1 783,
Savary published what is considered to be a much better translation. The above image shows the first edition of the translation by Savary.
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS 555
Simply hound dark brown
hard leather cover, 17th
century Ottoman Quran juz'
18th century Qur'an from Syria
or Iraq with a hard cover.
Dark brown leather covered Qur'an
embossed with floral designs from
China, 17th century.
Opposite page
The leather cover of t hi s
Qur'an has been extensively
damaged over the course
of time and requires major
repair work to be carried out.
The binding remains fairly
ntact. Handwritten in local
itaskh script from South East
Asia, 18th century.
556 THE MAGNIFICENT QUR'AN
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS 557
Concentric circles enclosing the
word )uz" to denote the start
of a new Quran part, North
Africa, 18th century.
5S8 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Blue and red ruku device with the
letter ayn enclosed within concentric
circles. From a Quran written in
bihari script, India, 16th century.
Blue and gold teardrop device with
a cloud-like outline used to indicate
the end of a section from a bihari
Quran, India, 16th century.
Ruku medallion with the letter ayn
enclosed within concentric circles.
From a Qur'an written in bihari
script, India, 16th century.
J*
o
•P.
Tenth verse marker with the word
ashara written in eastern kttfic upon
gold ground indicating the end of
ten verses, India, 16th century.
Ornate blue, gold and red shamsa
device marking the start of a new
juz' from a complete 17th
century Indian Qur an.
The word hizb written in ornamental
kujic in white upon a red background
and enclosed within concentric
circles, North Africa, 1 4th century.
Decorative star shaped marginal
device indicating the start of a new
section within a surah, Persia,
1 7th century.
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS 559
ured sajdah marker
lat the reader must
tie end of the verse,
ica, ISth century.
N1FICENT QURAN
J*
o
*
8
Triangular marker in green with the
words sadaqaliahul adheem
{Allah says the Truth)
Ottoman, 20th century.
Tenth verse marker with the word
ashara written in eastern kujic script
within blue and gold concentric
circles, Abbasid, 1 2th century.
Beige, green and red marginal roundel
used to designate the end of every
ten verses from a Dagestani
Quran, 1 8th century.
Gold, red and blue coloured
ornamental juz' marker drawn in
the shape of a cloud motif,
17th century, India.
QURAN BINDING AND MARKERS S63
Unusual brown and blue coloured
decorative floral ornament typical
of Qur'ans from the Herat region,
Afghanistan, 16th century.
566 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Bright tenth verse marker written
in the margin with a delicate central
floral work, from a Quran written in
rayhani script, Persia, 16th century.
Decorative palmette with golden
arabesque lattice from a
surah header panel,
North Africa, 1 8th century.
Unusually extended marginal
ornament indicating the start of a
new )uz'; from an Indian Quran,
early 19th century.
568 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
References
Preface
1, In Islam, the proper name of God is the Arabic term 'Allah',
This is the personal name of 'The One and Only True Deity',
who created the universe and all that it contains. Moreover,
the word 'Allah' expresses the uniqueness of 'Allah' more
accurately than the word 'God', which can adopt a plural
form, whereas the word Allah' has no plural or gender.
Furthermore, from an Islamic viewpoint, Allah is also the
most precious name of God.
2. Regarded as a jewel amongst stones, and the most beloved
of Allah's creation, Muhammad is the last Prophet of Islam
(570-632 CE); he is also known as the 'Seal of the Prophets'.
When Muslims write Prophet Muhammad's name, they
usually include the statement 'May the peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him' or g@ in Arabic.
Introduction
1. The Kaaba is the most sacred site in Islam and is located
inside the Sacred Mosque (Masjid-al-Haram) in Makkah,
Arabia. The Kaaba is at the very heart of the Islamic world
and represents the focal point toward which Muslims all over
the world pray five times a day It was built by the Prophets
Abraham and Ishmael (peace be upon them).
2. For a partial list, see: F. Deroche, The Abbasid Tradition,
London, 1992, p. 67.
The Need for Messages from Allah
1 . For a detailed review of the early history of the Jewish
and Christian scriptures, see: Muhammad M. al-Azami, Hie
History of the Qitr'anic Text, UK Islamic Academy, 2003,
chapters 14T6.
The Final Revelation from Allah
l.Saheeh al-Jaami' as-Sagheer, 1/350.
2. Ibn Kathir. Tafseer al-Qur'an, Darusalaam, Riyadh, 2001.
3. Saheeh al-Jaami' as-Sagheer, 2/28.
4. Muhammad Abd al-Adheem az Zarqaanee, Manaahii al-
'Irfaanfi 'Uloom al-Qur'an, Dar alTikr, Cairo, n.d.
5. Ibn Kathir, Tajseer al-Qur'an, Darusalaam, Riyadh, 2001.
The Three Stages of Revelation
1. Ibn Kathir, Tafseer al-Qur'an, Darusalaam, Riyadh, 2001.
2. Manna Qattaan in Mabahithfi 'Uloom al-Qur'an.
3. For further aspects of the Qur'ans miraculous nature see:
Rashida Begum Alam, "Die Islam Guide, An Insight into the
Faith, History and Civilisation, Exhibition Islam, 2007.
The Challenge in the Quran
1. Stephen S. Bilynskyj, God, Nature, and the Concept of
Miracle, Ph.D. Diss.: Notre Dame, 1982, p. 10-42.
2. Dr. William Lane Craig, The Problem of Miracles: A Histor-
ical and Philosophical Perspective. Available online.
3. Abd al-Jabbar, I'jaz al-Qur'an, Cairo, 1960, p. 224; Ali Ibn
Isa al-Rummani, Thalaih Rasa'il Ijaz al-Qur'an, Ed. M. Khalaf
Allah & M. Sallam, Cairo, 1956, p. 97; Hamd Ibn Muhammad
al-Khatibi, al-Eayanf I'jaz al-Qur'an, Ed. Dr Abd al-Alim,
Muslim University, Aligarh, India, 1953, p. 36; Abu Bakr
Muhammad Ibn Tayyib Baqillani, al-I'jaz al-Qur'an. Ed. A.
Saqr, Dar al-Ma'arif, Eqypt, pp. 86-89; A'isha Abd ar-Rahman,
at-Tafsir al-Ba\ani li-Qur'an al-Karim, 3rd ed, Cairo, 1968.
Opposite top
Brass quill holder and
inkwell. Writing was a
profession of scribes up until
a century ago. To meet with
modern demands of the
time, this travellers scribe
was invented. The travelling
scribes used this magnificent
item to hold their quills and
ink, tucking these cases into
their belts with the ink pot
keeping them from slipping
through. This is a 200 year
old piece from Ottoman
Turkey. Exhibition Islam
Collection.
Opposite bottom
North Alrican Islamic
calligraphers inkwell. This
antique scribe's inkwell is
made from stone. It has one
deep inkwell in the centre
surrounded by eight shallow
ones, possibly to write the
text of the Quran in different
colours. Exhibition Islam
Collection.
REFERENCES 569
The Challenge in the Quran (continued)
4. Arthur J. Arberry, Tfie Koran, Oxford University Press,
1998, p. x; Bruce Lawrence, Journal of Quranic Studies, Vol
VII, Issue I, 2005. Approximating Saj' in English Renditions
of the Qur'an: A Close Reading of Suran 93 (al-Duha)
and the basmala p. 64; Devin J. Stewart, Saj' in the Qur'an:
Prosody and Structure) in The Koran: Critical Concepts in
Islamic Studies, Edited by Colin Turner, Vol. II.
5. Metrical speech is a form of speech that employs a strict
rhythmical pattern, that is, it follows a type of poetic metre.
6. Louis Cheikhoj Shu'ara 'al-Nasraniyah, 1890-1891, Beirut.
7. Sir Charles J. Lyall, Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry,
p. xlv-lii and William Wright, 1955 (1898).
8. Von Denffer, 'Ulum al- Qur'an: An Introduction to the
Sciences of the Qur'an, The Islamic Foundation, 2003
(Revised Ed. 1994), p. 75.
9. Devin J. Stewart, Rhymed Prose. Encyclopaedia of
the Qur'an. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe,
Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill, 2008.
10. Angelika Neuwrith, Rhetoric and the Qur'an.
Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. General Editor: Jane Dammen
McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill,
2008.
1 1. E Arbuthnot, The Construction of the Bible and the Koran,
London, 1885, p 5.
12. See: Tafstr Ibn Kathir; Tajsir al-Qttrtubi; Tafsir al-Jalalayn
and Ma 'riful Qur'an by.
13. The influential Egyptian Litterateur born in 1889 and
died in 1973. Lecture entitled, Prose in the second and third
centuries after the Hijrah, delivered at the Geographical
Society in Cairo 1930, Dar al Ma-arif.
14. Mohammad Khalifa, The Authorship of the Qur'an:
Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Edited by Colin Turner,
Vol. L p. 129.
15. Mitwalli al-Sharawi, Vie Miracles of the Qur'an, Dar ul
Taqwa, p. 31.
16. Arthur J. Arberry, The Koran, Oxford University Press,
1998. p. x.
17. Dr. Adel M. A. Abbas, Anne P. Fretwell, Science Miracles,
No Sticks or Snakes, Beltsville, Maryland, USA: Amana
Publications: 2000.
18. Devin J. Stewart, Saj' in the Qur'an: Prosody and Structure,
p. 102.
19. Ali Ibn Isa al-Rummani, Tlialath Rasa'illjaz al-Qur'an,
Ed. M. Khalaf Allah h M. Sallam, Cairo, 1956, p. 97-98.
20. Devin J. Stewart, Saj' in the Qur'an: Prosody and Structure,
p. 102.
21. tbiUp.84.
22. ibid, p. 90.
23. Sec: H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Qur'an, Al-Maktoum
Institute Academic Press, 2003, p. 265-398; H. Abdul-Raof,
Qur'an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis, Curzon
Press, 2000, p 95-137; F. Esack, Quranic Hermeneutks:
Problems and Prospects, The Muslim World, 1993, Vol. 83,
No. 2. p. 126-128.
24. ibid.
25. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 187.
26. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 229.
27. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 187.
28. Surah al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2: 229. For further detail
see: Hussein Abdul-Raof, Quranic Styltstics: A Linguistic
Analysis, p 91-92.
29. S. M, Hajjaji-Jarrah, Hie Enchantment of Reading: Sound,
Meaning, and Expression in Sural Al-Adiyat, Curzon Press,
2000, p. 229.
570 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
The Challenge in the Quran (continued)
Compilation and Preservation
30. For more information on the rhetorical features in the
Qur anic discourse see: H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Quran,
al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press, 2003, p. 265-398;
H, Abdul-Raof, Qur'an Translation: Discourse, Texture and
Exegesis, Curzon Press, 2000, p 95-137; F. Esack, Quranic
Hermeneutics: Problems and Prospects, The Muslim World,
1993, Vol. 83, No. 2. p. 126 -128; Muhuddin Darwish, Irab-
ul-Quran; Ibn Kathir, Tafseer al-Qur'an, Darusalaam, Riyadh,
200 1 ; Dr Wahba Zuhayli, al-Tafseer al-Muneer; Al-Qurtubi,
Tafsir al-Qurtubi Arabic; al-Jami li-Ahkam al-Q_ur'an; Tafsir
al-jalalayn, Classical Commentary of the Quran (Arabic &
english); Imam at-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari: Jami' al Bayan fi
Ta'Wil al Quran; Ahmad al-Hashimi, jawaher al-Balaghah;
'Abd al-Fatah al- Qadhi, al-Wafi fi Sharh al-Shatibiyyahfi al-
Qira 'a t al-Sab ', ka ranga n .
31. Hussein Abdul-Raof, The Linguistic Architecture of the
Quran, Journal of Quranic Studies, Vol. II, Issue II, 2000, p.
39.
32. Abd al-Qadir Ahmad Ata, 'Wujuh i'jaz al-Qur'an, in
Mahmud ibn Hamza al-Karmani (ed.), Asrar al-tikrar fi'U
Quran, Cairo: Dar al-I'tisam, 1 977, p. 243-63.
33. Mu hammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Quran:
Vtemes & Styles, 1. B.Tauris Publishers, 1999, p. 184-210.
34. H. Abdul-Raof, Exploring the Quran, Al-Maktoum
Institute Academic Press, 2003 and H. Abdul-Raof, Quran
Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis, Curzon Press,
2000.
35. Muhammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Qiir'an:
Themes & Styles, 1999, p. 184-210.
36. ibid.
37. Neal Robinson, Discovering the Quran: A Contemporary
Approach to a Veiled Text, Georgetown University Press,
2004.
38. Muhammed Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Quran:
Themes & Styles, 1999, p. 184-210.
39. Rashida Begum Alam, The Islam Guide, An Insight into
the Faith, History and Civilisation, Exhibition Islam, 2007, pp.
191-264.
1 . Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences of
the Qur'aan, al-Hidaayah, 1999, p. 126.
2. Ibn Durais, Fada'il al Quran, G. Budair, Damascus, 1987,
p.33. This fact is also stated by az-Zuhri in Tamil al-Qur'an, p.
32; Ibn Kathir in al-Bidaya, u 340; Ibn Hajar in Fathul Bari,
ix:22.
3. Ibn Hajar al Asqalani, Fathul Bari ed. F. Abdul-Baqi, 13
vols. Al-Matbah'ah as -Saiafiyya, Cairo, 1380-1390, ix:22.
4. Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti, ad-Durr al-Manthur, Tehran, 1377,
idl,
5. Recorded in Ibn al-Jawzi in Tarikh Umaribn Al-Khattab.
6. Saif-ur- Rahman Mubarakpuri, ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum: Tfie
Sealed Nectar, Maktaba Darusalam, 1995, p.l 10.
7. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, pp. 59-61.
8. Mahmood Salim Ubaydaat, Diraasaatfi 'uloom al-Qitr'aan,
Dar Ammaar, Jordan, 1 990, p. 1 20.
9. Ahmad ibn Hanba, Musnad, Cairo, 1313, reprinted by
Qurtuba Press, 1988, iii, 146.
10. Umar ibn Shabba in Tarikh al-Madinah, F. Shaltut, p. 487.
11. Muhammad at-Tabari, Tafsir, Cairo, 3rd Ed. 1968, 1 : 24.
1 2. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 60.
13. ibid, p. 62.
14. ibid, p. 62.
15. ibid, p. 64.
16. S. Mubarakpuri, ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum, 1995, p.l 10.
17. Muhammad M. ai-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 68.
18. Ghanim Qadoori al-Hamad, Rasm al-Masaahif, Cairo
University, 1976, p. 98.
REFERENCES 571
Part of Surah ad-Dhuha
(The Morning Hours, 93)
from an early 20th century 5
metre long decorative Qur'an
scroll. Hand written in large
tUuluth script and splendidly
illuminated with strong use
of colour.
Compilation and Preservation (continued)
19. Muhammad M. al-Azami, Hie History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 70. See also, Abu Ammaar
Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qttr'aan, M-
Hidaayah, 1999, p. 160.
20. Bukhari has recorded the incident of the compilation of
the Qur'an, as have others.
21. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p 70.
22. Ibn Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Masahif Ed. A. Jeffrey, Cairo,
1936, p.6. See also Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Fathul Bari ed. F.
Abdul-Baqi, 13 vols. Al-Matbah'ah as -Salafiyya, Cairo, 1380-
1390; ix: 14.
23. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Fathul Bari ed. F. Abdul-Baqi, 13
vols, al-Matbah'ah as - Salafiyya, Cairo, 1380-1390, ix: 13.
Sahih al-Bukhari, 6/511 9/301.9/521.
24. Sahih al-Bukhari, Fada'il al-Qur'an.
25. Manna' Qattaan, Mabahith fi uloom al-Qur'an, Muasasat
al-Risalat. Beruit, 1983, p.128.
26. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 85.
27. Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4987.
28. Ibn Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Masahif, Ed. A. Jeffrey, Cairo,
1936, p.22.
29. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 89.
30. ibid, p. 93.
31. W,p. 94.
32. ibid, p. 96.
33. Ibn Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Masahif, Ed. A. Jeffrey, Cairo,
1936, p. 19-20.
34. Muhammad M. al-Azami, Vie History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, p. 94.
The Qur'an in Print
1. Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences
of the Qur'aan, AI-Hidaayah, 1999, p. 145.
2. ibid. pp. 173-206.
3. For an explanation of this saying see: ibid. p. 146.
The Quran Through the Ages
1. Muhammad M. al-Azami, The History of the Quranic Text,
UK Islamic Academy, 2003, pp. 1 15-149.
2. ibid, p. 100.
3. ibid, p. 140.
Qur'an translation
The English translation of the Quranic verses used in this
book have been taken from: Interpretation of the Meaning of
Vie Noble Qur'aan in the English Language by Dr. Muhammad
Taqiuddeen al-Hilaalee, Ph.D. and Dr. Muhammad Muhsin
Khan. Published by DARUSSALAM ©, Riyadh.
572 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Index
Aban ibn Said, 227,238
Abbasid, 102, 262, 265, 310, 311, 322, 332, 333, 494, 569
Abd al-Qadir Ahmad Ata, 173, 570
Abdullah ibn al-Arqam, 211
Abdullah ibn Mughaffal al Muzani, 221
Abdullah ibn Sad ibn Abias-Sarh, 211
Abdullah ibn Sa'id ibn al-As, 221
Abdullah ibn Salam, 221
Abdullah ibn Abbas, 235, 239
Abdullah ibn Ami ibn al-As, 235, 239
Abdullah ibn as-Sa'ib, 236
Abdullah ibn Umar, 235, 239
Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, 211
Abdur-Rahman ibn Hisham, 235, 239
ADranam, yropnet,
224, 228, 272, 296, 342, 366, 374, 386, 397
Abraham, Surah, 84, 1 63, 224, 228
Abraham Hinkellmann, 397
Abu Abbas 227,238
Abu Abdur-Rahman as-Sulami, 236,239
Abuad-Darda, 230
Abu al-Aswad ad-Du'ali, 259
Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi, 397, 571, 572
Abu Bakr, as-sideeq, 205, 211, 224, 227, 228, 230, 232,
235, 236, 238, 239, 569
AbuDawood 23, 119,576
Abu Hudhaifa, 227, 238
AbuHuraira, 92
Abu-l-AtaofSind, 149
AbuSalama, 211,227,238
Abu Sufyan, 227, 230, 238
AbuUbaidah, 211,224
AbuUmama, 227,238
Accent based, rhythm in the Qur'an, 150
Acidic ink, use of, 82, 227, 246, 330, 488
Acidity, of ink, 95, 131
Ad-Doree, 397
Ad-Du'ali system, of reading aids, 259
Aden, 266, 289
Afghanistan, manuscripts, 6, 191, 198, 199, 224, 289, 326,
362,424,425
Africa, manuscripts, 19,20, 124, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136,
137, 138, 139, 146, 153, 154, 262, 264, 265, 286,
326, 350, 362, 368, 397, 400, 426, 428, 430, 432,
436,510,511,51
519, 520, S21, 549, 558, 559, 561, 5i
African Horn, manuscripts, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 150,
265,426, 427,551
African Sahara, manuscripts, 428, 429, 430, 43 1, 432, 433,
434,435,436,437
Ahmad, 29, 92, 138, 149, 173, 262, 570, 571, 577
al-Aikah, 182
al-Aqaba, 211
al-Arqam, 211,227
al-Azhar, 397
al-Bahaqi, 214
al-Bassit, 149
al-Bayt al-Izza, 119
al-Bihar, 149,156
Alexander Ross, 555
Alexandria, 288
al-Fraheedi, 138,262
Algeria, 326, 362
al-Ghafoor, 177
al-Hazaj, 149
Alif LaamMeem, 95
Ali ibn Abi Talib, 227, 232, 236, 238
al-Kamil, 149
aLKhabab, 149
al-Khafif, 149
Allah, 3, 4, 6, 15, 23, 25, 29, 33, 35, 49, 51, 52, 60-64, 68,
76, 80, 87, 92, 95, 97, 1 10, 119, 120-128, 131, 146,
153, 155, 160-166, 173, 174, 177, 180-187, 190,
205-216, 227-240, 257, 264, 270-276, 280-286,
292-296, 298, 302-306, 310-336, 340-352, 356,
358, 360, 366, 370, 374, 376, 378, 382, 384, 386,
390, 392, 394, 423, 433, 443, 447, 475, 563, 569
Final Revelation, 75
His Infinite Mercy, 59
Names, 84, 86
Previous books, 59
Promise to preserve the Quran, 79
Qur 'an is the Speech of Allah, 82
d-Lauhal-Mahfuz, 119,336
Alliteration, in the Qur'an, 149, 160
al-Madid, 149
al-Masad, Surah, 68
al-Mughira ibn Shihab, 236, 239
al-Mujtath, 149
al-Muktatab, 149
al-Mutadarak, 149
al-Muttakarib, 149
al-Qadr, 119
al-Mamel, 149
al-Wafir, 149
Amir ibn Abd Qais, 236,239
Analogy, in the Qur'an, 160
Anatolian, manuscripts, 1 10, 1 1 1, 1 14
Andalusi, 264
Andalusia, 131, 304, 438, 439, 440, 44 1 , 5 1 2
Andalusian, manuscripts, 111, 131, 318, 319, 321, 515
Andalusian kufic, 515,516,517
Angel, 51, 120, 128, 211, 228, 238
Animal fur, 430
Animal hair, 142
an-Naas 6, 19, 68, 106, 221, 376, 455, 458, 487, 509
Antiphrasis, in the Qur'an, 160
Antithesis, in the Qur'an, 160
Arab, 52, 145, 146, 150, 153, 187, 191,206, 221,262
Arabesque, 6, 95, 106, 515, 521, 527, 540, 561, 566
Arabia, 52
Arabic, 6, 16, 19, 23, 49, SI, 52, 63, 80, 82, 95, 102, 110,
120, 122, 125, 145, 149, 150, 154, 194,205, 220,
230, 259, 276, 315, 323, 331, 352, 366, 391, 397,
426, 428, 430, 434, 442, 447, 452, 497, 494, 542,
545,555,569
Arabic literary forms, 16,149,150
Arabic poetry, 145, 149, 155, 156, 166, 174, 191
Archaic naskh, 70,116,553
A River in Paradise, al-Kawthar, 108 114,156,187,403,
485
Armenia, 232
ar-Raheem, 177
ar-Rajs, 149
ar-Rummani, 159
Arthur J. Arberry, 149, 159
Arud, 149, 156
Ashara, 6, 102, 216, 460, 495, 536, 539, 559, 563
Ash-shirul-'arabiya, 149
As-saria', 149
Assimilation, in the Qur an, 163
Asyndeton, in the Qur'an, 163
at-Tabari, 214,571
at-Tawil, 149
Ayah, 51,75,459
Ayatul kursi, 6, 68, 76, 125, 433
Ayn, Arabic letter, 51, 92, 226, 230, 244, 423, 470, 471,
472, 473, 558, 561
Azerbaijan, 232
az-Zubairibnal-Awwan, 211
B
Bahr, 156
Bahrain, 54, 236, 239
Balkans, 326,362
Bani Israeel (The Children of Israel, 17), Surah, 198, 209,
242
Bashir, 80
Basra, 230, 236, 239, 289
Battle of Yamaamah, 228
Beijing, 220, 374, 375
Beit al-Qur'an, Bahrain, 54
Berber, tribes, 136
Bifolium, 177, 438, 440, 510, 532
Bihari, script, 6, 170, 173, 211, 214, 215, 244, 245, 246,
264, 348, 349, 356, 3S8, 359, 423, 464, 472, 558
Bihari dynasty, 182
Bilal ibn Rabah, 228
Bilingual, 397
Bilynskyj, 146, 569
Binding, of the Qur'an, 20, 98, 149, 310, 465, 469, 522,
550, 551, 553, 556
Bismillah, 79, 128, 211, 220, 48S
Bleeding, by acidic ink, 95
Blue, use of in manuscripts, 6, 19, 54, 62, 75, 89, 100, 102,
106, 110, 124, 132, 153, 173, 176, 180, 192, 224,
248, 250, 252, 294, 304, 318, 320, 332, 344, 376,
423, 438, 439, 442, 465, 473, 495, 495, 500, 501,
514, 517, 533, 534, 536, 537, 540, 541, 559, 561,
562, 563, 564, 566
BoTie,aswritingmaterial, 165,211
Bore holes, caused by insects, 182, 206, 245, 262, 436
British Library 6, 49, 86, 120, 259, 280, 296, 306, 314, 20,
258,494
Brown ink, 127, 132, 138, 262, 264, 28
510,512,520
Bukhara, 159, 289
Bukhari, Sahih, 92, 95, 123, 128, 21 1, 572
97
e, in the Qur 'an, 163
>, 288, 397, 569, 570, 571, 572
Caliph, 16, 228, 230, 232, 235, 238, 239, 257, 259, 260,
397
Caliph Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq, 238
Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, 235, 239, 259, 260, 397
Calligrapher, 66, 72, 159, 165, 198, 205, 209, 246, 336,
434,465,488
Cape Town, 20
Cartouches, 423
Caucasus, 200,460,461,462,463
Challenge, in the Quran, 16, 145
i, 19, 230, 232,
Checking, i
238
Chiasmus, in the Qur'an, 163
394
Chinese, manuscripts, 19, 49, 170, 220, 240, 241, 264,
265, 327, 363, 374, 375, 442-459, 549, 555, 556,
565
Christians, 60, 62, 232, 292
Circles, use of in manuscripts, 6,70,82,90, 174, 176, 182,
392, 393, 423, 424, 429, 444, 446, 449, 452, 458,
463, 464, 471, 484, 495, 500, 514, 523, 531, S34,
542, 558, 559, 560, 562, 563
Circular marker, example of, 564
Cloud motif, use of in Qur'an illumination, 6, 198, 218,
466, 563
Cohesive element, 163
Commentary, of the Qur'an, 75, 79, 82, 89, 1 10, 128, 149,
1 77, 1 85, 219, 390, 400, 414, 416, 420, 436, 540,
541, 551
Companions, of Prophet Muhammad 51, 124, 125,
127, 128, 131, 146, 190, 205, 206, 21 1, 219, 220,
221, 224, 227, 228, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239,
257
571, 572
Contents, page, 15
Continuous format, of written verses, 136, 258, 435, 494,
511,517, 528, 532
Copenhagan, 20
Crimea, 418,419
Cross referencing, of the Qur'an, 232
Crusades, 116
Cursive, script, 54, 70, 72, 122, 190, 262, 264, 484, 497,
508,511
Czar Nicholas II, 260
D
Dagestan, manuscripts, 370, 371, 460, 462, 564
Damma, vowel sign, 138, 259
Damma tanween, vowel sign, 259
Damp, effect on manuscripts, 276, 432,
David, Prophet, 60,63,75
Day of Judgement, 128, 119, 131, 190
Day of Resurrection, 92, 276, 284, 296, 302, 3 1 8, 322,
336, 350,374, 384
Denmark, 20
Development of Quranic reading aids, 16, 259
Development of writing styles, 1 6, 257
Device, 94, 138, 160, 166, 173, 174,215,224, 228, 358,
386, 404, 494, 495, 512, 532, 558, 559, 560, 564
Devinj. Stewart, 149,159
Dhikr, a name of the Qur'an, 80
s, 214, 258, 259, 274, 302, 517
59, 127, 131
Divinely revealed books, 16, 59, 60, 131
Divine origin, 145
Divine Protection, 236
Diwani, script, 79, 264
Dluwang, paper, 232,448
Doha, 20
Dubai, 20
E
Earth, 76,82,92, 119, 120
Earth tones, 131,140,146,378
Eastern kufic, script, 19, 102, 116, 302, 303, 306, 307,
312,313,314,315, 559,563
Eemaan, IslamicbeHef, 128
Eesa ibn Maryam, Jesus son of Mary, 64
Egypt, 6, 66, 106, 257, 266, 288, 306, 326, 332, 334, 336,
344, 362, 392, 393, 400, 404, 405, 552, 555
Ellipsis, in the Qur'an, 150
Embossed, emblems, 70, 127, 436, 514, 521, 549, 551,
552, 553, 554, 556
End prayer, 509, 584, 585
End rhyme, example of in the Qur'an, 156, 159
Epizeuxis, in the Qur'an, 163
Equivoque, in the Qur'an ,163
Ethiopia, 131,155,426
Evil, 79, 80, 87, 120, 165, 232, 274, 286, 292, 294, 302,
310, 312, 334, 344, 348, 360, 370, 376, 382, 394
Exhibition Islam, 6, 19, 20, 23, 27, 49, 54, 68, 70, 1 16,
260, 274, 276, 282, 284, 286, 292, 294, 302, 304,
310, 312, 318, 322, 324, 330, 332, 334, 336, 340,
342, 344, 348, 350, 352, 356, 358, 360, 366, 368,
370, 374, 376, 378, 382, 384, 386, 390, 392, 394,
569,571
Far East, 228, 386, 387
Farsi, 82,205,310,540
F^, vowel sign, 138,230,259
Fatha tanween, vowel sign, 259
Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad 211,
216,219,577
Fdigree strapwork, 100
Final Revelation, the Qur'an, 15, 75, 569
Finials, decorative features, 19, 89, 501
First edition, of the translation by Savary, 555
Flap, on Qur'an covers, 432, 549, 550, 551
Floral, decoration and markers, 6, 19, 51, 52, 64, 76, 79,
89, 100, 102, 106, 108, 122, 128, 145, 165, 168,
376, 406, 410, 418, 424, 444, 446, 452, 456, 459,
462, 464, 486, 494, 500, 505, 523, 524, 530, 532,
544, 553- 556, 560-562, 565, 566
561, 562, 564
Folio, 19, 88, 106, 200
Footer, panel, 89, 140, 250, 437, 444, 458, 486
Foreword, 15, 19
Forster Fitzgerald Arb uthnot, 150
Fragile, manuscripts, 125, 182, 349, 360, 466, 469
Friday, Surah, 205
Frontispiece, 6, 211
Furqaan, Surah, 120, 124, 125, 473, 475, 539
Gabriel, Angel, 51, 120
Geometric, design work, 6, 5 1, 52, 60, 86, 89, 128, 131,
235, 240, 248, 249, 250, 254, 259, 376, 424, 446,
455,459,565
Ghubar, script, 490
Gilded, illumination, 177,418,540
Glossy, paper, 540
God Almighty, 49
Gold, illumination, 6, 54, 70, 75, 76, 82, 86, 88, 94, 95,
100, 102, 108, 122, 159, 160, 173, 176, 177, 180,
187, 192, 195, 201, 205, 206, 21 1, 214, 216, 226,
228, 240, 250, 252, 259, 262, 294, 295, 296, 332,
342, 3S0, 356, 358, 360, 382, 403, 423, 442, 444,
452,456, 465, 495, 500, 512, 514, 515, 523, 525,
530-534, 536-539, 540-541, S49, 552, S58-563
Inlay, 376
Leaf, 52,454
Sprinkled paper, 218
Golden Age of Islamic science, 262
Good, 23, 60, 79, 80, 102, 120, 156, 160, 165, 166, 173,
174, 190, 232, 2S9, 262, 270, 272, 292, 294, 298,
394
Gospel, 60, 64, 173, 310, 370, 382
Gradual revelation, of the Qur'an, 16, 120
Grammatical rules, 150,153
Grammatical shift, 150,174
Green, colour usage, 54, 63, 80, 82, 131, 136, 138, 180,
221, 236, 240, 259, 262, 264, 294, 296, 297, 302,
318, 320, 350, 368, 370, 390, 439, 441, 442, 444,
454, 462, 466, S10, 514, 517, 540, 551, 563, 564,
565
H
Hadith, 146
Hafs, mode of recitation, 264, 397
Hafsah,wifeofthe Prophet Muhammad St, 230,232,
235, 238, 239
Halaal, 97, 123
Haraam, 97, 123
Hasp, decorative feature, 86, 249, 466
Hausa, 146
Hausawi, script, 145, 146, 1S4, 156, 378
Hayy, Attribute of Allah, 86
Header, panel, 6, 19,60, 134, 140, 163, 165, 168, 177,
192, 205, 224, 246, 250, 350, 356, 366, 423, 427,
431, 437, 455, 458, 459, 473, 475, 486, 491, 494,
496, 504, 516, 5 17, 523, 527, 534, 537, 540, 541,
561, 566
Hebrew, 82
Henna, coloured paper, 310, 31 1, 312, 313, 334, 335
Herat, 159, 160,289,566
Hermannus Dalmatia, 555
Hijaz, 258, 265, 266, 267, 270-274, 276, 280, 282, 284
Hijazi, script, 257
Hijrah, migration from Makkah, 6, 224, 570
Hims, 230
Hisham ibn Hakim, 221
Hizb,juz' subdivision, 51, 64, 131, 145, 475, 498, 511, 514,
INDEX 575
Hood, 11 475
Horn of Africa, 153,426
Hud, Surah, 124, 154, 217, 220
Huda, 80
Hudhaifa ibn al-Yaman, 232
Hyp c rb o le, i n the Qur'an, 165
Ibn Abbas, 123,127,153,211
Ibn Amir, 397
Ibn as-Saamit, 221
Ibn Kathir, 75, 76, 82, 87, 120, 128, 153, 569, 570, 571
IbnManzoor, 187
IbnMas'ud, 219,221
IbnMuqlah, 264
IbnUmar, 92
ibraheem, Prophet, 76, 82, 84, 163, 224, 228, 342, 366,
386,577
Ijaze, script, 264
Iltifaat, grammatical shift, 150, 168, 173
Imported, paper, 20,236,254,484
Incipit, opening pages, 52, 100, 120, 254
India, 6, 166, 170, 182, 194, 195, 209, 215, 224, 242, 243,
244, 245, 246, 247, 252, 257, 264, 265, 289, 356,
423, 464-471, 469, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477,
478, 479, 480, 558-563, 564, 569
Indonesia, 19, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 255, 265, 360,
384, 484, 48S, 486, 487, 488, 489, 554
inductive, reason tng, l4o
Inimitability, of the Quran, 49, 145, 155
Injeel, previously revealed book, 64, 75, 76, 120
Inkwell, 569
Insects, damage caused by, 177, .
Interlinear, text, 89, 95, 177, 205, 310, 342, 343, 1
424, 536, 540, 542
Introduction, 15, 51, 150, 397, 569, 571, 572
Iraq, 6, 70, 176, 192, 262, 265, 302, 312, 314, 500, 505,
534, 553, 556
Iron, Surah, 64, 92
Isaac, Prophet, 59, 60, 63, 272, 342, 366
Ishmael, Prophet, 52, 59, 60, 63, 272, 342
Islam 6, 19, 20, 23, 27, 49, 51, 52, 54, 59, 68, 70, 97, 116,
123, 124, 128, 131, 182, 190, 191, 206, 21 1, 214,
219, 220, 221, 228, 230, 232, 257-264, 266, 274,
276, 282, 284, 286, 288, 292, 294, 302, 304, 310,
312-318, 322, 324, 326, 330-336, 340, 342, 344,
348, 350, 352, 356, 358, 360, 362, 366, 368, 370,
374, 376, 378, 382, 384, 386, 390, 392, 394, 569,
571, 576,577
Islamic Cultural Centre, London, 20
Islamic Law, Shari'ah, 97
Islamic Monotheism, 59, 79, 276, 296, 304, 310, 312,
336, 352, 360, 374, 382, 386
Islamic world, 49, 52, 235, 239, 254, 257, 262, 264, 266,
288, 326, 362
Isocolon, in the Quran, 165
Istanbul, 20, 52, 76, 89, 257, 259, 270, 272, 320, 397
Java, 327,363,488
Javanese, 232,235
Jawi, script, 221, 227, 228, 235, 254, 264, 384, 385, 488
Jeddah, 266, 289
Jerusalem, 266, 289
Jesus, Prophet, 59, 60, 63, 64, 75, 165
Jews, 60, 62, 63, 64, 232, 292
Jibreel, Angel, 51, 21 1, 228, 238
Jinn, 6, 76, 80, 86, 120, 146, 180, 306, 320, 348, 350,358,
376, 384
Jonah, Prophet, 10 124, 145, 154, 155
Joseph, Prophet, 6,80,244,252,366,475,497
Joseph, Surah, 12 80, 366, 473
Juz', 51, 64,75, 94, 108, 110, 111, 127, 131, 145, 154,
198, 200, 209, 224, 226, 230, 244, 245, 262, 398,
429, 434, 442, 451, 461, 471, 474, 475, 489, 505,
512, 520, 537, 550, 554, 556, 558, 559, 560, 563,
K k
Kzhin, sub-form of rhymed prose, 149, 154
Kairouan, 54,295
Kalaam, Arabic, speech, 82
Kasra, vowel sign, 138,230,259
Kasra tanween, vowel sign, 259
Kathir ibn Aflah, 235,239
Kazan, 397, 544
Khabbab ibn Aratt, 216
Khalid ibn Sa'id ibn al-As, 211
Khamsa, 459, 536
Khat-i-Bihar, 182
Khiva, 289
Kufa, 230, 236, 239, 289
Kufic, script, 6, 19, 51, 54, 59, 72, 102, 106, 116, 120, 122,
124, 131, 132, 257, 259, 260, 262, 264, 265, 270,
272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 284, 285, 286, 287, 292,
293, 294, 295, 297, 298, 302, 303, 306, 307, 312,
3 13, 314, 3 15, 344, 350, 496, 493, 494, 495, 498,
5 1 0, 5 14, 5 1 S, 5 16, 5 1 7, 559, 561, 563
Knfic-hijazi, script, 274, 275, 276, 277
Lantern, design, 221,442,444
Latin translation, of the Qur'an,
Laylat al-Qadr, 119
Leather, 6, 62, 70, 98, 102, 123, 127, 142, 221, 238, 242,
274, 275, 277, 382, 414, 418, 423, 424, 430, 432,
434, 436, 490, 504, 5 14, 521, 522, 528, 545, 549,
550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556
Leaves, unbound pages of Qur'an, 51, 54, 66, 95, 102, 211,
214, 230, 282, 303, 348, 125, 146, 149, 150, 153,
154,170,190,252,262,564
Lebanon, 6
Library & National Institute of Archaeology, Tunis, 54
a, of the Qur'an, 145, 149, ISO, 153, 155, 159,
168, 173, 191
London, 6, 20, 49, 54, 86, 120, 258, 259, 280, 296, 306,
314,569, 570
Lot, Prop/jet, 182,286,296,368
Louis Cheikho, 149
i, 119
M
Machine made paper, 20, 84, 230, 235, 254, 408, 430,
432,484,488, 505,510,519
Madda, vowel sign, 92,98
Madinah, 6, 16, 131, 145, 21 1, 214, 219, 220, 221, 224,
227, 128, 227, 224, 228, 230, 232, 236, 238, 239,
257, 259, 266, 289, 392, 397, 455, 571
Maghribi,5cnpf, 19, 124, 125, 127, 131, 134, 136, 138,
145, 146, 264, 304, 305, 318, 319, 320, 321, 350,
351, 368, 369, 379, 397, 438,440, 510, 512, 514,
Mail, script, 122, 257, 258, 280, 281
Makkah, 6, 16, 52, 128, 142, 145, 163, 206, 21 1, 214,
219, 220, 224, 227, 236, 238, 239, 266, 289, 342,
43 1, 449, 455, 459, 470, 473, 475, 523
Malik ibn Abi Amar al-Abashi, 259
Malik ibn Abi Amir, 235, 239
Mamluk, Qur'ans, 6, 49, 66, 67, 68, 86, 95, 102, 106, 108,
335, 337, 107, 108, 109, 120, 265, 322, 334, 336,
344, 345,494,498, 500,563
Man, Surah, 6, 185
Mankind, 114 6, 68, 106, 221, 455, 487, 509
Manuscripts, 16, 19, 20, 23, 49, 60, 72, 122, 134, 145,
209, 218, 266, 20, 70, 182, 190, 230, 235, 250, 254,
257, 259, 264, 288, 326, 362, 397
Ma'oonah, well, 206, 224
Marginal device, 94, 138, 215, 224, 228, 358, 404, 494,
532, 559, 560, 564
Jacob, 59,60,63,272,366
Jalalayn, 153,570
Linen paper, 116
Linguistic devices, 150,168
Linguistic miracle, 16, 145, 180, 191
Lisan al-Arab, 187
Mary, Surah, 64, 94, 165, 174
Mashad, 289
Medallion, 6, 64, 131, 145, 252, 473, 536, 558, 561
Memorisation, of the Qur'an, 16, 49, 51, 75, 80, 125, 205,
211,214,220, 239
Memory, 51,220
Message of the Qur an, 15, 97
Messages from Allah, 15, 59, 569
Messenger of Allah, 59, 64, 128, 206, 294, 392
Messiah, 64
Metaphor, in the Qur'an, 165
Metonymy, in the Qur'an, 166
Middle East, 6, 20, 59, 63, 70, 71, 72, 73, 84, 98, 119, 128,
170, 216, 264, 289, 292, 296, 322, 326, 330, 340,
341, 352, 353, 362, 398, 436, 492, 493, 494, 495,
496, 497, 498, 500, 504, 505, 508, 509, 518
Migration, 6, 128, 211, 219, 224
Miracle, defined, 51
Miraculous nature, of the Qur'an, 97, 127, 145
Mohammad Khalifa, 156,570
Moses, Prophet,
324, 360, 386, 394
Mosul, 289
Mountains, 76
576 THE]
Mubarak, 80
Mughal, 264,466
Muhammad, Final Prophet and Messenger 4£, 6, 16, 23,
49, 5 1, 52, 59, 75, 79, 80, 87, 92, 95, 97, 1 19, 145,
146, 153, 166, 174, 177, 187, 190, 206, 208, 214,
219, 221, 228, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239, 257,
266, 288, 298, 326, 336, 362, 397
Gradual revelation, 120-131
Memorisation, of the Qur'an, 205
Memorisation, in Madinah, 220
Memorisation, in Makkah, 208, 21 1
Revelation, during Ramadan, 76
Scribes, in Madinah, 227
Noble Qur'an, 4, 6, 19, 20, 49, 59, 82, 219, 578
Non-Arab, 145,153,262
5,342,
9
Teaching, other cities, 224
Teaching, in Madinah, 220
Muhammad Arshad, 33,577
ript, 6, 19, 49, 51, 56, 59, 63, 66, 76, 102,
, 108, 119, 159, 160, 165, 168, 170, 174,220,
264, 322, 323, 330, 33 1, 332, 333, 334, 335,
343, 344, 345, 442, 454, 494, 504, 532, 549
Mulberry tree, use in paper makii
Multiple meaning, 190
Munir Ahmad, 29
Mursal, ordinary prose or speech, 16, 150, 156
Mu'sabibnSa'd, 235
Mus ab ibn Umayr, 219
Musaylamah, 153, 154
Mushaf, Qur'an codex, 51, 214, 230, 232, 235, 397
Muslim, 6, 15, 19, 23, 49,51, 52, 59, 60, 62, 64, 79, 97, 87,
122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 146, 149, 153, 155, 170,
205, 211, 214, 216, 224, 228, 230, 232, 236, 239,
N
Nadhir, 80
Nafi* ibn Zuraib ibn Arm ibn Naufal, 235
Names of the Qur'an, 1 5, 80
Nasalisation, 163
Naskh, script, 6, 19, 51, 52, 54, 56, 59, 60, 64, 70, 75, 80,
82, 84, 87, 88, 90, 92, 94, 97, 98, 100, 1 10, 1 16,
119, 159, 160, 163, 165, 170, 174, 176, 177, 182,
185, 190, 191, 194, 198, 200, 201, 205, 206, 209,
21 1, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, 224, 227, 230, 232,
236, 310, 311, 324, 325, 336, 337, 340, 341, 352,
360, 367, 21 1, 376, 366, 97, 221, 224, 226, 227,
230, 232, 236, 242, 249, 252, 264, 265, 310, 311,
324, 325, 336, 337, 340, 341, 352, 360, 366, 367,
370, 371, 374, 376, 377, 384, 38S, 386, 387, 390,
391, 397, 400, 408, 420, 424, 436, 444, 445, 446,
447, 448, 452, 454, 456, 458, 460, 463, 464, 466,
524, 525, 536, 538, 540, 542, 552, 553, 556
Nasreen Asmat Hussain, 35
Nasser D. Khalili collection, 54
Nasta'bq, script, 89, 95, 110, 177, 185, 205, 310, 342, 343,
390,391,424,536, 540, 542
Natural laws, 146
Neal Robinson, 174,571
New Testament Bible, 60
Night of Power, laylat al-Qadr, 1 23
Nishapur, 289
North Africa, 6, 20, 124, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,
138, 139, 262, 264, 265, 286, 350, 368, 400, 5 10,
511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 520, 521,
549,559,562,564,566
Norway, 20
Numbered, pages, 66, 403, 404, 406, 414, 418, 490
Nuqat, skeletal dots, 259
Octagonal stars, marginal device, 540
Odour, caused by damp, 432
Oman, 267,289,326
Oneness of Allah, 80, 127, 128, 292, 298, 304, 324, 348,
358, 360, 374, 386, 394
Onomatopoeia, in the Qur'an, 149
Opening pages, 123, 131, 136, 140, 384, 398, 416, 444,
452
Oral transmission, of the Qur'an, 239
Orange, use of in manuscripts, 90, 131, 154, 192, 248, 304,
420, 428, 429, 439, 516, 517, 521, 561
Original reference Qur'an, 270-273
124,257,264
461, 465, 499, 515, 517, 521, 532, 537, 560, 561,
564,566
Ornamental juz marker, 563
Ornamental kufic, script, 1 06, 5 14, 559
Oslo, 20
Ottoman, manuscripts, 6, 20, 49, 51, 52, 56, 57, 60, 64, 75,
76, 79, 82, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95, 100, 110, 265, 382,
383, 395, 397, 398, 403, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410,
411, 412, 413, 436, 522-531, 550, 552, 553, 554,
556, 562,563, 565, 569
Pagan, 125,127,220
Page numbering, 526
Palestine, 100,230
Palindrome, in the Qur'an, 166
Palmette, 134, 444, 493, 561, 566
Palm leaves, 51,211
Panel, 19, 70, 86, 100, 140, 146, 163, 174, 177, 180, 187,
205, 208, 214, 240, 242, 248, 412, 424, 437, 444,
447, 449, 454, 455, 456, 459, 466, 477, 484, 485,
566
Parallelism, in the Qur'an, 165
Parchment, 20, 51, 21 1, 214, 227, 235, 274, 275, 277,
287,294,297
Parenthesis, in the Qur'an, 166
Pear, shaped device, 131,532
People of the Book, 15, 60, 62, 125
Persia, 6, 176, 177, 192, 193, 201, 242, 265, 267, 289,
310, 324, 326, 342, 362, 376, 397, S00, 532-541,
559-561, 566
Persian, manuscripts, 6, 49, 95, 174, 177, ]
Petra, 289
Phonetic devices, 163
Photography, of the collection, 20
Plural words, use of in the Qur'an, 180, 182
Poem, 51,52,80, 149
Poetry, 16, 52, 145, 149, 150, 155, 156, 159, 166, 174,
191, 206
Poets, 52, 150, 153, 159
Polished paper, 6, 64, 187, 192, 195, 201, 242, 376, 377,
382, 501
Polyptoton, in the Qur'an, 166
Polytheism, 52,80,205,310,312,386
Pouch, 20, 145, 508
Preface, 15,49
Pre-Mamluk, 102,494
Preservation, of the Qur'an, 15, 19, 20, 49, 51, 79, 125,
131, 205, 206, 21 1, 220, 232, 238, 257, 262, 340,
352,353
Preserved Tablet, 119,336
Press, printing, 19, 397, 414
Previous books, of Allah, 15, 49, 62, 79, 15, 59, 13 1
Printed, Qur'ans, 19, 20, 264, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394,
395, 397, 398, 400, 406, 408, 412, 414, 418, 420,
423, 490, 504, 526, 527, 528, 530, 544, 545, 555
Productive capacity, 146,150
Professor AbdelHaleem, 173,174
Professor Bruce Lawrence, 149
Professor Muhammad al-Azami, 257
Pronoun, 173, 187, 191
Prophet Aaron, 180
Prophet Moses, 60, 62, 63, 82, 86, 180
Prophet Muhammad & 6, 16, 23, 49, 51, 52, 59, 75, 76,
, 145, 146, 153, 166, 174, 177, 187,
190, 205, 206, 208, 211, 214, 219, 220, 221, 224,
227, 228, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239, 257, 266,
288, 298, 326, 336, 362, 397
Prophet Noah 166
Prophets, of Allah, 59, 60, 64, 124, 127, 59, 1 19, 131
Prophet's Mosque, 227, 228
Prose, 16, 145, 149, 150, 154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 168,
174, 191
Prose poem, 149
Prosodies, 150
Prostate, sajdah 131,477,495
Psycholingui sties, 168
Punctuation, 56, 2S2, 254, 427, 429, 471, 473, 510, S39
Qafiyah, 149, 156
Qajar Quran, 6,201
Qara'a, 80
Qari, 236, 239
Qatar, 20, 397
Quill, 569
Qum, 289
Qur'an,
Binding and i
e, 16, 145
j the rule of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, 16,
565
INDEX 577
Quran (continued),
First compilation, 16,228
First translation into the English, 555
In print, 17, 397, 572
Inimitability, 49, 145, 155
Manuscripts,
7th Century, 67, 73, 260, 266, 267, 268, 269,
270, 272, 274, 276, 329-335, 337, 439, 493
8th Century, 336, 340, 342, 344, 107, 109, 111,
115, 135, 266, 267, 278, 279, 280, 282, 284,
286, 339, 341, 343, 345, 488, 495, 501, 517
9th Century, 54, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294,
296, 298, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352,
353,464, 510
10th Century, 57, 70, 132, 193, 245, 247, 262,
264, 288, 300, 301, 302, 304, 306, 355, 356,
357,358, 359, 360, 361,519
1 1th Century, 116, 195, 241, 243, 289, 308, 309,
310, 312, 314, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370,
371, 451, 469, 471, 473, 475, 497, 492,
523, 525, 539, 541
12th Century, 102, 137, 139, 141, 143, 253, 288,
289, 316, 317, 318, 320, 322, 324, 373, 374,
375, 377, 378, 379, 425, 427, 429, 431, 433,
435, 438, 445, 447, 449, 453, 455, 457, 459,
461 , 463, 465, 467, 477, 485, 487, 489, 494,
512, 535, 541
1 3th Century, 66, 68, 72, 326, 327, 328, 329,
330, 332, 334, 336, 440, 496
14th Century, 106, 108, 110, 114, 134, 251, 326,
327, 338, 339, 340, 342, 344, 389, 390, 391 ,
392, 393, 394, 395, 405, 407, 409, 411, 413,
4 19, 42 1 , 437, 494, 498, 500, 5 1 6, 532
15th Century, 326, 327, 346, 347, 348, 350, 352,
464
16th Century, 56, 192, 244, 246, 327, 354, 355,
356, 358, 360, 504,518,534
17th Century, 194, 240, 242, 362, 363, 364, 365,
366, 368, 370, 442, 444, 466, 468, 470, 472,
474, 496, 507, 536, 538, 540
18th Century, 136, 138, 140, 142, 252, 362, 363,
372, 373, 374, 376, 378, 424, 426, 428, 430,
432, 434, 446, 448, 450, 452, 454, 456, 458,
460, 462, 476, 478, 482, 484, 486, 5 10,
522, 533, 540
19th Century, 198, 200, 248, 254, 362, 363, 380,
3 8 1 . 382, 3 84, 386, 4 1 4, 4 1 6, 490, 520, 524,
526, 528, 530, 544
20th Century, 250, 362, 363, 388, 389, 390, 392,
394, 404, 406, 408, 410, 412, 418, 420, 436
Marking system, 72
214, 220, 239
Message, 97
Names, 15,80
Preservation of, 15, 19, 20, 49, 51, 79, 125, 131,
205-206, 21 1, 220, 232, 238, 257, 262, 340, 352
Reading aids, 257
Rhetorical features, in the Qur'an, 150, 160
Rhetorical questions, in the Quran, 166
Rhetorical stylistic device, 160
Semantically orientated language, 159, 191
Speech of Allah, 15, 49, 82, 84, 87, 92, 97, 1 19
Stylistics, 16, 149, 156, 160, 163, 166, 168, 173,
174
Three stages of revelation, 16, 1 19, 569
t. form 145, 149, 153, 155, 159, 168,
'an (continued),
Writing in Madinah, 227
Writing in Makkah, 211
52,114, 235, 320,403, 485
Rafi ibn Malik al-Ansari, 211
Rain, 177
Ramadan, 15, 20, 76, 1 19, 128, 21 1, 228
Rashida Begum Alam, 31,420,577
Rayhani, script, 6, 51, 120, 180, 187,
566
Reading aids, 1 6, 257, 259, 262
Recitation, 4, 6, 49, 51, 75, 80, 92, 110, 127, 131, 142,
153, 180, 185, 206, 214, 219, 221, 232, 236, 262,
264, 397, 404, 427, 429, 461, 463, 471, 477, 495,
493, 509, 515, 523, 527, 529, 535, 537, 540, 578
Red ink, use of in manuscripts, 63, 66, 72, 80, 84, 87, 92,
110, 119, 131, 142, 163, 168, 176, 198, 200, 219,
235, 246, 252, 304, 332, 336, 340, 352, 366, 374,
427, 431, 432, 433, 444, 445, 446, 447, 449, 454,
456, 460, 464, 467, 471, 473, 476, 477, 495, 523,
536, 540, 542
Repair, work on Qur'ans, 54, 66, 116, 174, 211, 324, 461,
469, 556
Repentance, Surah, 95, 310
Rhetorical features, in the Qur'an, 150, 160
Rhetorical questions, in the Qur'an, 166
Rhetorical stylistic device, 160
Rhyme, 127, 149, 150, 1S6, 159, 168
Rhymed prose, 16, 149, 150, 154, 159, 160, 168, 191
Rhythm, 127, 149, 150, 156, 173, 180, 191
Rhythmical pattern, 149, 150, 156
Rightly Guided Caliphs, 288, 326, 362
Riqa, script, 19, 5 1, 79, 82, 264
River Nile, 266
Robertas Ketenensis, 555
Rosettes, 19, 54, 173, 214, 294
Roundels, 6, 70, 102, 1 16, 146, 240, 312, 322, 342, 494,
492
Ruku, surah sub-division, 51, 56, 209, 226, 230, 532, 558,
561, 562
Ruku device, 558
s
Saad, Surah, 131, 272, 356, 492
Sacred Mosque, 52
Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, 2 1 1
Saffron, use of, 124, 131, 132, 138, 145, 146, 156, 368,
43S, 510, 514, 517, 518
Sahrawi, script, 142, 149, 153, 264, 426, 428, 430, 432,
551
Said ibn Zayd, 219
Sa'idibnal-As, 235,239
Saf, 16, 150, 156, 159, 168, 191
Saj'aat, 159
Sajdah, prostration markers, 131, 221, 482, 492, 499, 515,
560,561,562
Sana, 224, 266, 289, 298
Satchel, 20, 145
Scholars, 97, 149, 153, 190,257, 397
Scribe, 63, 127, 134, 166, 211, 224, 227, 236, 238, 330,
460, 535, 569
Scribes, of the Prophet Muhammad % 19, 5 1, 79, 211,
219, 227, 228, 235, 238, 239, 257, 569
Scroll, manuscript, 6, 62, 76, 79, 128, 508, 509
Seljuk, 116, 117
Semantically orientated, language of the Qur'an, 159, 191
Sepia, 54,294
Shamsa, 56, 240, 559, 561
Shari'ah, Islamic law, 97
Sheba, Surah, 170, 214, 439
Shell, shaped markers, 438, 440, 441, 51 1
Shikaste, script, 264
Shirk, 80
Sini, script, 170, 220, 221, 240, 264, 374, 375, 442, 444,
449, 456, 565
Skeletal dots, 257, 259
S. M. Hajjaji-Jarrah, 168, 570
Songket, cloth covering, 552
Sound, 15,92, 149, 150, 153, 155, 159, 160, 168, 173,
191,216,322
South Africa, 20
South East Asia, 227, 236, 360, 361, 556
Spain, 19, 124, 257, 262, 264, 288, 304, 305, 318, 320,
326, 362, 438, 440
Speech of Allah, is eternal, 15,84
Spirit of Allah, 64
Spoken Word of Allah, 3,23,51
Spread of Islam 288,326,362
Stained, manuscripts, 1 16, 140, 428, 432, 444, 460, 516,
532, 541
Staining, on manuscripts, 108, 428, 430, 432, 452, 454,
462, 476, 488,492,512
Star, shaped marginal device, 559, 560
Stone, 51, 54, 62, 21 1, 238, 259, 569
Stoneland, Surah, 1 5 224
St Petersburg, 260, 397
173, 174
Sub -Saharan Africa, 154
Sudani, script, 127, 140, 145, 154, 156, 264, 378, 379, 434
Suhuf, 62, 76
Sultan Baybars' Qur'an, 86
Sultan Faraj ibn Barquq, 120
Sultans of Damascus, 257
Surah aal-Imraan, 60, 62, 64, 163, 165, 173, 332
Surah ad-Duhaa, 160
Surah ad-Dukhaan, 160
Surah adh-Dhaariyaat, 72, 320, 418, 493
Surah al-Ahqaaf, 124
Surah at-Ahzab, 6
Surah al-Alaq, 59, 219, 403, 477
Surah al-An'aam, 63, 86, 95, 127, 218, 545
Surah al-Anbiyaa, 51, 80, 165, 230, 246, 322, 370, 414
Surah al-Anfaal, 216,429,494
Surah al-Ankaboot, 173, 249, 259, 296, 304, 449, 468,
Surah al-A*raaf, 79, 84, 86, 120, 149, 150, 165, 166, 206,
260, 282, 420, 499
Surah al-'Asr, 485
Surah al-Balad, 168, 192,219
Surah al-Baqarah, 6, 52, 59, 60, 68, 76, 80, 87, 89, 100,
108, 119, 123, 125, 134, 136, 140, 146, 149, 153,
156, 180, 211, 235, 254, 264, 270, 292, 330, 350,
378, 382, 384, 397, 416, 4S3, 463, 466, 513, 519,
521, 524,549, 570
Surah al-Burooj, 119,336
Surah al-Falaq, 6, 106, 201, 274, 344, 376, 487
Surah al-Fatihah, 6, 52, 86, 87, 100, 123, 128, 134, 136,
140, 146, 180, 194, 195, 206, 211, 254, 350, 382,
384,416, 437,463,467,525
Surah al-Feel, 1 14, 1S4, 485
Surah al-Furqaan, 80, 120, 124, 125, 470, 475, 539
Surah al-Ghaashiyah, 160, 163, 541
Surah al-Haaqqah, 214,535
Surah al-Hadeed, 64, 92
Surah al-Hajj, 185, 191, 322, 403, 414, 504
Surah al-Hashr, 75,138
Surah ai-Hijr, 79, 205, 224, 257
Surah al-Hujuraat, 334,408
Surah al-Humazah, 485, 491
Surah al-Ikhlaas, 6, 95, 274
Surah al-Insaan, 6, 185
Surah al-Israa, 6, 1 16, 120, 166, 479, 483
Surah al-Jaathiyah, 82
Surah al-Jinn, 517
Surah al-jumu'ah, 205, 245
Surah al-Kahf, 94, 142, 190, 250, 348, 483
Surah al-Kawthar, 114, 156, 174, 187,
Surah al-Ma'aarij, 534
Surah al-Maaidah, 62, 63, 64, 79, 443
Surah al-Maa'oon, 1 14, 485
Surah al-Muddaththir, 59, 166
Surah al-Mujaadilah, 125
Surah al-Mulk, 23, 262, 540
Surah al-Mu'minoon, 182, 200, 226, 489
Surah al-Mumtahanah, 153,262
Surah al-Munaafiqoon, 392
Surah al-Mursalaat, 160
Surah al-Muzzammil, 120, 208, 516
Surah al-Qadr, 119
Surah al-Qamar, 166
Surah al-Qasas, 249, 318, 324, 394
Surah al-Qiyaamah, 208
Surah al-Waaqi'ah, 4, 6, 174
Surah an-Naas, 6, 106, 221, 376, 487
Surah an-Nahl, 56, 87, 92, 1 19, 131, 236, 302, 374
Surah an-Najm, 62, 227, 441
Surah an-Naml, 54, 66, 1 10, 1 1 1, 240, 280, 286, 294, 360,
394, 515
Surah an-Nasr, 68,491
Surah an-Nisa, 60, 63, 86
Surah an-Noor, 97, 103, 163, 182, 314, 398, 475, 495
Surah ar-Ra'd, 76, 132, 163, 228, 340, 386, 480
Surah ar-Rahmaan, 23, 90, 166, 465
Surah ar-Room, 159, 423, 533
Surah ash-Shams, 192,312
Surah ash-Sharh, 6, 163
Surah ash-Shu'araa, 66, 80, 102, 120, 182, 258, 280, 539
Surah as-Saaffaat, 131, 166, 205, 208, 493
Surah as-Saff, 6, 153
Surah at-Toor, 153,227,410,418
lat-Tawbah, 95,124,310,461,529
iar, 211,216,356,423,451
Surah Bani Israeel, 209, 236, 242
Surah Faatir, 160,352,427
Surah Fussilat, 205,221,232,358
Surah Ghaafir, 232, 284, 423
Surah Hud, 124, 154, 217, 220, 244, 473
Surah Ibraheem, 82, 84, 163, 224, 228, 342, 386
Surah Luqmaan, 82, 98, 160, 259, 296, 306, 406
Surah Maryam, 94, 165, 174
Surah Muhammad, 63
Surah Mulk, 174
Surah Qaf , 80, 206, 219, 408, 424
Surah Quraysh, 114,485
Surah Saad, 272
Surah Saba, 170, 177, 214, 439
Surah TaaHaa, 88, 180,216,431
Surah Yaaseen 95,427
Surah Yunus, 124, 145, 154, 155,298
Surah Yusuf, 6, 80, !
Suyuti, 153, 173,571
Synecdoche, in the Our'a n, 168
Syria, 6, 66, 70, 80, 230, 236, 239, 265, 332, 334, 336,
abun, 392, 543
Surah at-Talaaq, 165, 177, 543
Surah at-Teen, 6, 477
T
Tabriz, 289
TahaHusayn, 155
Ta'if, 266
Tajweed, 142
Tanzeel, name of the Quran, 80
Tare q Raj ab Museum, 54
Tashkeel, vowel signs, 259
Tassel, decorative feature, 466
Taurat, 62,63,75,76
Tawheed, Oneness of Allah, 80, 128
Tawqi', script, 51,95
Teaching, and Memorisation in Madinah, 220
Teardrop, device, 173, 465, 515, 558, 561
Tenth verse marker, 559, 563
Text compartment, 174, 424, 456, 459, 486, i
Textual markers, 159
Thamud, 182,312,336,368
The Ant, Surah, 54, 294
The Bee, Surah, 56, 87, 92, 119, 131, 236, 302, 374
The Believers, Surah, 23 182, 200, 226, 403
The Cattle, Surah, 95, 218, 545
The Children of Israel, Surah, 198, 209, 236, 242
The City, Surah, 168, 192,219
The Clot, Surah, S9, 219, 403, 477
The Confederates, Surah, 6, 25, 160, 16S, 170, 182, 215
The Consultation, Surah, 59, 75, 84
The Creator, Surah, 68
The Criterion, Surah, 25 80, 120, 124, 125, 471, 475
The Curved Sand-Hills, Surah, 124
The Daybreak, Surah, 6, 68, 106, 201, 274, 344, 376, 455,
459,487
The Divorce, Surah, 165, 177, 543
The Dominion, Surah, 23, 174, 262, 540
The Elephant, Surah, 1 14, 154, 403
The Event, Surah, 6, 174
0, 535
The Family of Imraan, Surah, 60, 62, 332
The Fig, Surah, 6, 477
The Forenoon, Surah, 160
The Forgiver, Surah, 165, 232, 423
The Forgiving, Surah, 177
The Fountain, Surah, 108 174
The Gathering, Surah, 75
The Groups, Surah, 21 1, 216, 356, 423, 451
The Heifer, Surah, 6, 52, 59, 60, 68, 76, 80, 87, 89, 100,
119, 123, 125, 134, 136, 140, 146, 149, 153, 156,
180, 211, 235, 254, 262, 270, 292, 330, 378, 382,
384, 397, 416, 433, 463, 469, 500, 504, 508, 5 1 1,
521, 524, 549, 570
The Heights, Surah, 79, 120, 149, 150, 165, 166, 260,
420, 499
The Help, Surah, 68, 221, 455, 491
The Islam Guide, 191,571
The Jinn, 72 517
The Journey by Night, Surah, 6, 116, 120, 166, 465,477
The Kneeling, Surah, 82
The Light, Surah, 97, 103, 163, 182, 398, 475, 495
The Mansions of the Stars, Surah, 1 19
The Moon, Surah, 166
The Most Gracious, Surah, 90, 166, 465
The Mount, Surah, 153,227,410,418
The Narration, Surah, 249
The Night of Decree, Surah, 1 19
The One Enveloped, Surah, S9
The One Wrapped in Garments, 120, 208
The Opening, Surah, 6, 51, 52, 86, 87, 100, 123, 128, 134,
136, 140, 146, 163, 180, 194, 195, 206, 211, 254,
350, 384, 416, 463, 469, 501, 508
The Opening Forth, Surah, 6, 163
The Originator of Creation, Surah, 1 60, 427
The Overwhelming, Surah, 160, 163, 541
The Palm Fibre, Surah, 68, 455, 509
The Pilgrimage, Surah, 185, 191, 403, 504
The Poets, Surah, 66, 102, 182, 258, 539
The Prophets, Surah, 80, 165, 230, 246, 322, 370, 414,
505
The Prostration, Surah, 98, 224
The Purity, Surah, 6, 68, 274, 455
The Ranks, Surah, 6
The Repentance, Surah, 122, 124, 461, 529
The Resurrection, Surah, 208
The Rocky Tract, Surah, 205,257
The Romans, Surah, 159, 423, 533
The Slanderer, Surah, 403, 485, 491
The Small Kindnesses, Surah, 1 14, 403, 485
The Smoke, Surah, 160
The Spider, Surah, 173, 249, 259, 449, 468, 533
The Spoils of War, Surah, 216, 429, 494, 527
The Star, Surah, 227
The Stoneland, Surah, 79
The Sun, Surah, 192,312
The Table Spread, Surah, 5 62, 63, 64, 79
The Time, Surah, 403, 485
The Ways of Ascent, Surah, 534
The Winds that Scatter, Surah, 72, 320, 418, 493
The Woman to be examined, Surah, 153
The Women, Surah, 60,63,86,127,182
They are explained in detail, Surah, 205, 221, 232
Those Ranged in Ranks, Surah, 131, 166, 205, 208, 493
INDEX 579
Those sent forth, Surah, 160
Thuluth, script, 6, 51, 59, 60, 62, 66, 75, 76, 79, 86, 128,
205, 412, 423, 504, 536, 537, 6, 89, 264
Topkapi Saray Museum, 20, 76
Torah, 60, 64, 173, 310, 318, 370, 382
Translation, 95, 154, 177, 185, 205, 264, 310, 342, 343,
390, 391, 397, 420, 424, 536, 540, 541, 540, 555
Transmission, of the Qur'an, 20, 49, 51, 119, 166, 239
Traveller, 123,508
Triangular marker, 563
Tromso, 20
Tunisia, 54, S5, 288, 294, 295, 326, 362, 397
u
Ubada, 230
UbayyibnKa'b, 221,227,235,238,239
Ukaadh, 52
Umar ibn al-Khattab, 214, 221, 227, 228, 230, 232, 236,
238
Ummayyad Caliphate, 288, 326, 362
Unbound, manuscripts, 145,378,379
Urdu, 390,391,420
UthmanibnAbial-As, 224
Uthmanibn Man, 205, 211, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239,
257, 259, 260, 270, 271, 272, 273, 397
Uthmanic compilation, of the Qur'an, 16, 232
Uzbekistan, 168,549
Word choice, 187
Word order, 168, 173
Writing, 16, 19, 20, 49, 51, 54, 59, 62, 72, 89, 94, 119,
131, 145, 150, 80, 149, 170, 198, 205, 206, 211,
221, 227, 230, 238, 257, 262, 264, 276, 282, 397,
535
Yazid ibn Abdullah ibn Qusait, 230
YazidibnAbuSufyan, 230
Yemen, 224, 236, 239, 266, 289, 298, 326, •
Zabur, 63,75,76, 120
Zakah, 128
Zayd ibn Tnabit, 211, 219, 227, 228, 235, 236, 238, 239
Late 16th to early 17th
century Qur'an from
Uzbekistan written in large
muhaqqaq style script. The
text is fully vocalised in black
with some limited use of red
has red and black text with a
white outline upon a multi-
coloured foliate background.
The page shows the end of
Surah al-Mumtahanah (The
Woman to be examined, 60)
V
Variant, scripts, 76, 119, 140, 145, 146, 156, 159, 160,
191, 227, 230, 236, 246, 264, 314, 324, 325, 370,
371, 374, 378, 379, 384, 385, 386, 387, 426, 428,
444,454
Vellum, writing material, 20, 51, 54, 116, 125, 132, 258,
259, 262, 264, 270, 272, 276, 280, 28 1, 282, 283,
285, 292, 293, 304, 305, 318-321, 438, 492, 512,
513
Verse separators, 6, 88, 92, 98, 136, 154, 165, 218, 259,
262, 284, 356, 397, 418, 435, 497, 540
Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 54
Vocalisation 72, 145, 159, 287, 302, 318, 320, 464, 490,
497
vocalised, 54, 70, 76, 106, 138, 168, 194, 252, 486, 512,
514,540
Vowels, 88, 257, 350
Vowel signs, 124
w
Wabra ibn Yuhannas, 224
Warsh, mode of recitation, 264,397
Water, 82, 160, 166, 240, 272, 286, 304, 368, 378, 390,
428, 438, 440, 444, 484, 509, S 1 1, 513, 5 16, 521,
522, 532, 541
Wazn, 156
West Africa, 146,397
Western kufic, script, 1 24, 262, 264, 5 1 0
Wooden Hocks, for printing Qurans, 397
Word arrangement, 190
"O Allah forgive our living and our dead, those who are with us and those who are
absent, our young and our old, our menfolk and our womenfolk.
O Allah, whomever you give life from among us give him life in Islam, and
whomever you take away from us take him away in Faith. O Allah, do not forbid
us their reward and do not send us astray after them".
(Abu Dawood, 3/211)
582 THE MAGNIFICENT QURAN
Abdul Hameed
Ali Muhammad
Fateh Muhammad
Ghulam Muhammad
Jan Muhammad
Shah Muhammad
Fatimah Bibi
Hafiz Koshee Muhammad
Hafiz Khuda Bashk
Hamida Bibi
Hanifa Bibi
HashmatAli
Karima Bibi
Mian Khair Deen
Mian Shah Muhammad
Mian Suleyman
Muhammad Hani}
Muhammad Basheer
Muhammad Arshad
Muhammad Tufayl
Muhammad Zahid
Zaynab Alam
Abdul Ghajoor
Abdul Ghaffar Gohar
Abdul Haq
Abdur Rahman
Abdur Rasheed
Aziza Begum
Bilqees Bibi
Fatimah Bibi
Ghafforan Bibi
Hamida Bibi
Hafiz Nur Muhammad
Ihsan ul-Haq
Kulsoom Akhtar
Mian Ghafoor Ahmad
Mian Shalcoor Ahmad
Mujahid Abdul Hameed
Muhammad Ibraheem
Muhammad Shareef
Nisaar ul-Haq
Rashida Begum Alam
Rashida Bibi
Shamsul Haq
Sooghra Bibi
Tariq Iqbal
Tariq Mahmood
Uthman Abdul Ghaffar
Zohra Begum
Abdul Majeed
Abdul Waheed
Bibi Rasool
Ghulam Rasool
Hajira Majeed
Jamila Majeed
Muhammad Akram
Muhammad Munir
Moreed Hussain
Zaynab Rasool
Syed Abdul Raouf
Syed Abdul Shakoor
Syeda Aziza Mahmoudah
Syeda Farhat
Syed Hamaad Raza Jaffery
Syed Mumtaz Ali Shah
Syeda Nasreen Mansoor
Syed Saif-ul-Islam
Fatimah Bibi
Imdad Hussain
Muhammad Aslam
Niaz Ahmad
Sakina Bibi
Abdullah Khan
Haji Mian Ahmad
Hafizah Mariam
Mariam Khatoon
Mian Yusuf
Mullah Mian Sultan
Suleyman Yusuf
Shaikh Ahmad
Shamsud Din
Akhund Khair Muhammad
Sikander Humayun Ansari
Shamim Haroon
Ali Muhammad
Basharat Ali
Bashira Begum
Fatih Muhammad
Fatima Bibi
Fatima Bibi
FazalBibi
Fazal Muhammad
Ghulam Hassan
Ghulam Nabi
Haji Abdul Majid
Halima Bibi
Juney Begum
Kareem Bibi
Kushi Muhammad
Majidah Begum
Mian Muhammad Shafique Anwar
Muhammad javad Alam
Muhammad Ibraheem
Muhammad Ibraheem
Muhammad Ismail
Muhammad Afzal
Muhammad Akeel
Muhammad Akram Shahid
Muhammad Aslam Zahid
Muhammad Kafeel
Muhammad Rafiq
Muhammad Sharif
Naimati Bibi
Rashid Ahmad
Sairan Begum
Sardar Muhammad
Shafaq Ali
Shameem Begum
Sharif an Bibi
Syrian Begum
Zahid Rashid
Zainab Bibi
Zainab Bibi
Ramzan Bibi
Rashida Chowdhry
Sairan Bibi
<$>
Barkhat ibn Nawab Din
Shameem Akhtar ibnt Nawab Din
Umm Mahmoodah Muhammad Bibi
Amina Phoplonker
Aiysha Palekar
Habiba Phoplonker
Mumtaz Palekar
Shaikh Ahmed Abdul Gafoor Palekar
Shaikh Ismail Ahmed Phoplonker
Abdul Hamid
Abdullah
Aiysha Bibi
Amir Hamid
Asif Chowdhry
Fatima Bibi
Fazal Dean
Fazal Muhammad
Hajirah Bibi
Juney Bibi
Nur Muhammad
RahmatAli
Saeed Ali
Sakina Begum
Walayat Khan
Abdul Malik Chaffee
Kalandar Jan
Kaneez Bi Ali
Munawer Muhammad Naseem
Muhammad Musa
RuqsanaAziz
Sarwar Hanif
Saeed Sattar
583
Peace and blessings of Allah be upon
the Last Prophet and Messenger,
Muhammad
a mercy to mankind
and the best of all creation
/J
I
t
L
THE MAGNIFICENT
Quran
^^^ta^ A Unique History of Preservation
This stunning book is for those readers with an interest in seeing how the Noble Quran has been preserved over the last fourteen centuries Using fine
examples from the magnificent collection of Quranic manuscripts held by Exhibition Islam, many of which have been displayed here for the first time
this work shows how the Arabic words of the Quran have remained unchanged since its revelation.
The Exhibition Islam Quran Collection presented in this book has been carefully collected over a number of years and features a wide array of manuscripts
rom across the Islamic world. The collection as a whole highlights how the text of the Quran has been preserved over the centuries. Indeed no other
book has undergone such rigorous preservation criteria, nor been as widely copied, as the Quran. It has an unbroken chain of preservation from the time
of revelation to Prophet Muhammad * in the 7th century to the modern day; both orally and in written form. Allah, the Most High, has preserved the
Quran and guaranteed it from corruption until the end of time. Its meticulous preservation and transmission through memorisation and writing has
ensured that the Qui an available today is the same as that which was revealed over 1,400 years ago; an everlasting message for all people, for all time
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